Marital Strain Exacerbates Health Risks of Filial Caregiving: Evidence from the 2005 National Survey of Midlife in the U.S.

This study examined linkages between providing care for a parent (in contrast to not providing any care to other kin or nonkin) and four dimensions of physical health (self-rated health, functional limitations, physical symptoms, chronic conditions), as well as moderation of these linkages by gender and a negative dimension of marital quality--marital strain. Regression models were estimated using telephone and self-administered questionnaire data from 1080 married men and women who participated in the National Survey of Midlife in the U.S. (MIDUS) 2005. Although providing filial care was not found to be a global health risk for all married caregivers, marital strain was a critical factor in determining risk. Contrary to hypothesis, robust gender differences were not in evidence. But among both women and men, caregiving for a parent in the presence of high levels of marital strain was associated with significantly poorer health across all four evaluated outcomes.

Filial Caregiving is Associated with Greater Neuroendocrine Dysfunction: Evidence from the 2005 National Survey of Midlife in the U.S.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined associations between providing caregiving for a biological or adoptive parent and clinically-assessed biological risk factors (allostatic load [AL] and its three subscales - inflammatory dysfunction, metabolic dysfunction, neuroendocrine dysfunction), as well as moderation of these associations by gender. METHOD: Regression models were estimated using telephone and self-report data from 962 men and women who participated in the National Survey of Midlife in the U.S. (MIDUS) 2005. RESULTS: Filial caregivers demonstrated higher levels of neuroendocrine dysfunction. No gender difference in biological risks was found. DISCUSSION: Filial caregiving is the most prevalent form of family caregiving and results indicating the presence of greater neuroendocrine dysfunction among filial caregivers in contrast to noncaregivers suggest an important public health concern. Future research needs to continue to examine different relationship types of caregivers and include a range of biological risk measurement to further the understanding of how family caregiving is linked to biological health risks.

Socioeconomic status, marital status continuity and change, marital conflict, and mortality.

OBJECTIVE: The authors investigated (a) whether being continuously married compared with other marital status trajectories over 5 years attenuates the adverse effects of lower education and lower income on longevity, (b) whether being in higher conflict as well as lower conflict marriage compared with being single provides a buffer against socioeconomic status inequalities in mortality, and (c) whether the conditional effects of marital factors on the SES-mortality association vary by gender. METHOD: The authors estimated logistic regression models with data from adults aged 30 or above who participated in the National Survey of Families and Households 1987- 2002. RESULTS: Being continuously married, compared with being continuously never married or making a transition to separation/divorce, buffered mortality risks among men with low income. Mortality risk for low-income men was also lower in higher conflict marriages compared with being never married or previously married. DISCUSSION: Marriage ameliorates mortality risks for some low-income men.

Sense of Community as a Protective Factor against Long-Term Psychological Effects of Childhood Violence.

This study uses a risk and resilience framework for conceptualizing the long-term effects of childhood family violence on mental health. It examines sense of community as a protective factor against adult psychological distress associated with experiences of physical or psychological violence in childhood from parents. Regression models are estimated using data from the 1995 National Survey of Midlife Development in the U.S. and from the 1996-97 National Study of Daily Experiences. Reported experiences of frequent psychological violence, regardless of the frequency of physical violence, is found to be positively associated with adult psychological distress. Adults' sense of community is found to moderate the association between reports of both frequent psychological and frequent physical violence in childhood from parents and adult psychological distress.

Identifying experiences of physical and psychological violence in childhood that jeopardize mental health in adulthood.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined associations between profiles of physical and psychological violence in childhood from parents and two dimensions of mental health in adulthood (negative affect and psychological well-being). Profiles were distinguished by the types of violence retrospectively self-reported (only physical, only psychological, or both psychological and physical violence), as well as by the frequency at which each type of violence reportedly occurred (never, rarely, or frequently). METHODS: Multivariate regression models were estimated using data from the National Survey of Midlife in the U.S. (MIDUS). An adapted version of the Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS) was used to collect respondents' reports of physical and psychological violence in childhood from each parent. Respondents also reported on current experiences of negative affect and psychological well-being. RESULTS: Regarding violence from mothers, reports of frequent psychological violence-even when coupled with never or rarely having experienced physical violence-were associated with more negative affect and less psychological well-being in adulthood. Nearly all profiles of violence in childhood from fathers-with the exception of reports of rare physical violence only-were associated with poorer adult mental health. CONCLUSIONS: Results provide evidence that frequent experiences of psychological violence from parents-even in the absence of physical violence and regardless of whether such violence is from mothers or fathers-can place individuals' long-term mental health at risk. Moreover, frequent physical violence from fathers-even in the absence of psychological violence-also serves as a risk factor for poorer adult mental health. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Findings provide additional empirical support for the importance of prevention and intervention efforts directed toward children who experience physical and psychological violence from parents, as well as among adults who reportedly experienced in childhood only one type of violence and especially psychological violence at high levels of frequency.

Profiles of physical and psychological violence in childhood as a risk factor for poorer adult health: evidence from the 1995-2005 National Survey of Midlife in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined linkages between physical and psychological violence in childhood from parents and three dimensions of adult health (self-rated health, functional limitations, chronic conditions). METHODS: Regression models were estimated using data from the 1995 and 2005 waves of the National Survey of Midlife in the U.S. Responses to an adapted version of the Conflict Tactics Scales in 1995 were used to code respondents into one of nine profiles of violence distinguished by types and frequency of violence. RESULTS: Reports of both frequent physical and frequent psychological violence were associated with poorer health at baseline across the three dimensions of health, as well as with more severe declines in health across all three dimensions over the 10-year study period. DISCUSSION: Results suggest that having experienced frequent physical and psychological violence in childhood is a risk factor for poorer adult health status and declining trajectories of health throughout adulthood.

Do formal religious participation and spiritual perceptions have independent linkages with diverse dimensions of psychological well-being?

Recognizing religiosity and spirituality as related yet distinct phenomena, and conceptualizing psychological well-being as a multidimensional construct, this study examines whether individuals' frequency of formal religious participation and spiritual perceptions are independently associated with diverse dimensions of psychological well-being (negative affect, positive affect, purpose in life, positive relations with others, personal growth, self-acceptance, environmental mastery, and autonomy). Data came from 1,564 respondents in the 2005 National Survey of Midlife in the United States (MIDUS). Higher levels of spiritual perceptions were independently associated with better psychological well-being across all dimensions, and three of these salutary associations were stronger among women than men. Greater formal religious participation was independently associated only with more purpose in life and (among older adults) personal growth; greater formal religious participation was also associated with less autonomy. Overall, results suggest a different pattern of independent linkages between formal religious participation and spiritual perceptions across diverse dimensions of psychological well-being.

Violence from parents in childhood and obesity in adulthood: using food in response to stress as a mediator of risk.

Guided by a life course perspective and concepts from models of stress and coping, this study tested the extent to which self-reported profiles of physical and psychological violence in childhood from parents were associated with greater odds of obesity in adulthood. This study also examined the extent to which adults' greater use of food in response to stress served as a mediator of potential associations of risk. Multivariate regression models were estimated using data from 1650 respondents in the 1995-2005 National Survey of Midlife in the U.S. (MIDUS). Results indicated that respondents who reported having experienced both psychological and physical violence from parents-with at least one type of violence having reportedly occurred frequently-were more likely to be classified as obese in contrast to respondents who reported never having experienced either type of violence from parents. Evidence from a sequence of models that tested mediation effects indicated that greater use of food in response to stress among respondents with problematic histories of violence explained, in part, their higher risk of adult obesity. Findings contribute to the growing body of evidence regarding psychosocial predictors of obesity, as well as the physical health consequences of childhood family violence. Results further suggest the importance of addressing particular aspects of life course social relationships-such as violence in childhood from parents-and their implications for psycho-behavioral uses of food within efforts to reduce rates of adult obesity.

Marital Conflict, Depressive Symptoms, and Functional Impairment.

Guided by a stress process perspective, we investigated (a) whether marital conflict might directly lead to changes in depression and functional impairment, (b) whether marital conflict might indirectly lead to changes in functional impairment via depression, and (c) whether marital conflict might indirectly lead to changes in depression via functional impairment. We estimated a latent variable causal model using 3 waves of data from the National Survey of Families and Households (N = 1,832). Results indicated that marital conflict directly led to increases in depression and functional impairment and indirectly led to a rise in depression via functional impairment. Overall, findings suggest marital conflict is a significant risk factor for psychological and physical health among midlife and older adults.

Psychosocial Moderators the Effects of Transitioning Into Filial Caregiving on Mental and Physical Health.

A life-course theoretical perspective guided this study to examine how effects on mental and physical health (depressive symptoms, hostility, global happiness, self-esteem, personal mastery, psychological wellness, self-rated physical health) of transitioning into filial caregiving for a sole surviving parent are moderated by prior relationship quality, filial obligation, race or ethnicity, education, income, employment status, marital status, and parental status. Results from models estimated using longitudinal data from 1,060 adults aged 25 to 65 years at baseline (National Survey of Families and Households, 1987 to 1994) suggested that life-course and contextual factors do contribute to patterning health risks of caregiving, often in different ways for men and women: For example, low income puts daughter caregivers at greater risk for decline in physical health, combining employment with filial caregiving is more problematic for daughters' mental health, and being an unmarried filial caregiver is more problematic for men. Heterogeneity in the experience of filial care needs further attention in future research.

Continuous participation in voluntary groups as a protective factor for the psychological well-being of adults who develop functional limitations: evidence from the national survey of families and households.

OBJECTIVES: Although previous studies have indicated that declining functional health is associated with individuals' poorer psychological well-being, few studies have examined factors that can protect adults from the loss of well-being following functional decline. Guided by continuity theory, this study investigated the extent to which continuous participation in voluntary groups (recreational, religious, and civic) buffers individuals against the harmful psychological effects of developing functional limitations. METHODS: Longitudinal data came from 4,646 respondents aged 35 to 92 in the National Survey of Families and Households (1987-1993) who reported having no functional limitations at Time 1. RESULTS: Multivariate models controlling for sociodemographic factors, as well as psychological well-being at Time 1, indicated that developing functional limitations over a 5-year period was associated with greater increases in depressive symptoms and lower levels of personal growth. Increases in depressive symptoms, however, were less severe among men who were continuously involved in recreational groups than among men who were not continuously involved in recreational groups. Additionally, the association between developing functional limitations and lower levels of personal growth did not hold for men or women who continuously participated in religious groups. DISCUSSION: Findings suggest that continuous participation in certain types of voluntary groups can moderate the problematic effects of developing functional limitations on psychological well-being.

Death of Parents and Adult Psychological and Physical Well-Being: A Prospective U.S. National Study.

Guided by a life course perspective, attachment theory, and gender theory, this study aims to examine the impact of death of a father, a mother, or both parents, as well as continuously living with one or both parents dead (in contrast to having two parents alive) on multiple dimensions of psychological well-being (depressive symptoms, happiness, self-esteem, mastery, and psychological wellness), alcohol abuse (binge drinking), and physical health (self-assessed health). Analyses of longitudinal data from. 8,865 adults in the National Survey of Families and Households 1987-1993 reveal that a father's death leads to more negative effects for sons than daughters and a mother's death leads to more negative effects for daughters than sons. Problematic effects of parent loss are reflected more in men's physical health reports than women's. This study's results suggest that family researchers and practitioners working with aging families should not underestimate the impact of filial bereavement on adult well-being.

Religious Social Identity as an Explanatory Factor for Associations between More Frequent Formal Religious Participation and Psychological Well-Being.

Guided by social identity theory, this study investigated having a closer identification as a member of one's religious group as an explanatory mechanism for linkages between more frequent formal religious participation and better subjective psychological well-being (more positive affect, less negative affect, and more life satisfaction). Multivariate regression models were estimated based on data from 3,032 participants, ages 25 to 74, in the 1995 National Survey of Midlife in the U.S. (MIDUS). Results provided support for the mediating effect of religious social identity on the associations between more frequent religious service attendance and all three dimensions of psychological well-being examined. Given the lack of previous empirical attention to social identity within the literature on religiosity and mental health, these findings contribute to our understanding of self, religion, and health, while also pointing to the importance of continuing to draw on well developed social psychological theory in investigations of linkages between religion and health.

Linked Lives: Adult Children's Problems and Their Parents' Psychological and Relational Well-Being.

This study examined associations between adult children's cumulative problems and their parents' psychological and relational well-being, as well as whether such associations are similar for married and single parents. Regression models were estimated using data from 1,188 parents in the 1995 National Survey of Midlife in the United States whose youngest child was at least 19 years old. Participants reporting children with more problems indicated moderately poorer levels of well-being across all outcomes examined. Single parents reporting more problems indicated less positive affect than a comparable group of married parents, but married parents reporting more problems indicated poorer parent-child relationship quality. Findings are congruent with the family life course perspective, conceptualizing parents and children as occupying mutually influential developmental trajectories.

Formal volunteering as a protective factor for older adults' psychological well-being.

OBJECTIVE: Guided by interactional role theory and employing a resilience framework, this study aimed to investigate whether formal volunteering protects older adults with more role-identity absences in major life domains (partner, employment, and parental) from poorer psychological well-being. METHODS: We used data from 373 participants, aged 65-74, in the 1995 National Survey of Midlife Development in the U.S. (MIDUS). Multivariate regression models estimated the effects of major role-identity absences, formal volunteering, and the interaction between major role-identity absences and volunteering on respondents' negative affect, positive affect, and purpose in life. RESULT: Participants with a greater number of major role-identity absences reported more negative affect, less positive affect, and less purpose in life. Being a formal volunteer was associated with more positive affect and moderated the negative effect of having more major role-identity absences on respondents' feelings of purpose in life. DISCUSSION: Consistent with previous studies, findings indicate that having more role-identity absences constitutes a risk factor for poorer psychological well-being. Results further demonstrate that being a formal volunteer can protect older adults with a greater number of major role-identity absences from decreased levels of purpose in life. The findings suggest that associations between volunteering and psychological well-being might be contingent upon the volunteer's role-identity status and the dimension of psychological well-being examined.