Use of a poll-mounted accelerometer for quantification and characterisation of equine trigeminal-mediated headshaking.

BACKGROUND: Equine trigeminal-mediated (TGM) headshaking (HS) is a neuropathic facial pain syndrome characterised by varying intensity and frequencies of head movements and signs of nasal irritation. An accurate method for quantification and/or characterisation of HS severity is lacking. OBJECTIVES: To develop and validate an objective measure of TGMHS. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective case control study. METHODS: Horses presenting for investigation of HS were recruited alongside those presenting for forelimb lameness (LAME) and pre-purchase examination as well as healthy controls (CONTROL). Head movement data were collected for 5 min whilst trotting on the lunge using a tri-axial accelerometer, with a range of ±16 g and sampling rate of 800 Hz, attached to the bridle headpiece. Recordings were exported for processing. Peak detection was performed using minimum and maximum thresholds of -1 g and +1 g (corrected for gravity) and a minimum peak width of 10 samples. RESULTS: Fifty-six horses were included in the study; 18 TGMHS, 10 non-TGMHS, 12 LAME and 16 CONTROL. Characteristics and frequency of vertical (Z axis) head movements of TGMHS horses differed significantly from other horses. TGMHS horses had peaks with greater mean and maximum positive g-force (P < 0.005) and lower mean and minimum negative g-force (P < 0.001), greater frequency of peaks/min (P < 0.001) and over 12 times greater percentage of peaks >+2 g compared with other horses (P < 0.001). Receiver operator curve characteristics of percentage of peaks >+2 g (CI 0.72-0.95), percentage of peaks <-2 g (CI 0.66-0.92) and percentage of peaks <-2 g and >+2 g (CI 0.72-0.96) showed excellent discrimination of TGMHS horses from LAME, CONTROL and non-TGMHS horses. MAIN LIMITATIONS: Referral population of horses, small sample size and control horses were not evaluated for orthopaedic disease. CONCLUSIONS: Accelerometer data from trotting exercise on the lunge provides an objective measure of HS and can differentiate between TGMHS, non-TGMHS, normal head movements and those associated with forelimb lameness. Accelerometer use may aid HS diagnosis and monitoring of management strategies.

HISTORIAL: La sacudida de cabeza (HS) en equinos mediada por el nervio trigémino (TGM), es un síndrome de dolor facial neuropático caracterizado por movimientos de cabeza de intensidad y frecuencia variables y por síntomas de irritación nasal. No existe un método preciso para cuantificar y/o caracterizar la gravedad de HS. OBJETIVOS: Desarrollar y validar una medida objetiva de TGMHS. DISEÑO DEL ESTUDIO: Estudio prospectivo de casos y controles. MÉTODOS: Caballos presentados para la investigación de HS fueron reclutados junto a aquellos presentados para cojera de mano (LAME) y examen de pre­compra como controles saludables (CONTROL). Datos de los movimiento de la cabeza fueron recolectados durante cinco minutos mientras trotaban a la cuerda usando un acelerómetro tri­axial, con un rango de ±16 g y frecuencia de muestreo de 800 Hz, ajustado a la testera de la cabezada. Las grabaciones se exportaron para ser procesadas. Detección de picos fue realizada usando umbrales mínimos y máximos de −1g y + 1g (corregidos para gravedad) y un muestreo mínimo de 10 picos de ancho. RESULTADOS: Cincuenta y seis caballos fueron incluidos en el estudio; 18 TGMHS, 10 no­TGMHS, 12 LAME y 16 CONTROL. Las características y la frecuencia de los movimientos de cabeza verticales (eje Z) de caballos TGMHS, difirieron significativamente de otros caballos. Los caballos TGMHS presentaron picos con una fuerza­g positiva con mayor promedio y máxima (P < 0.005) y una fuerza­g negativa con menor promedio y mínima (P < 0.001), con mayor frecuencia de picos/min (P < 0.001), y un porcentaje mas de doce veces mayor de picos >+2 g en comparación a los otros caballos (P < 0.001). Las características de las curvas del operador del receptor de los picos promedio >+2 g (CI 0.72­0.95), del porcentaje de picos <−2 g (CI 0.66­0.92), y del porcentaje de picos <−2 g y > +2 g (CI 0.72­0.96) mostraron una excelente discriminación de caballos TGMHS con respecto a caballos LAME, CONTROL y no­TGMHS. LIMITACIONES PRINCIPALES: Población de caballos derivados, numero de muestra pequeño, y los caballos control no fueron evaluados por enfermedades ortopédicas. CONCLUSIONES: Los datos de acelerómetros por trote a la cuerda, dan una medida objetiva de HS y permiten diferenciar entre TGMHS, no­TGMHS, movimientos normales de cabeza y aquellos asociados a cojera de mano. El uso de acelerómetros puede ayudar en el diagnostico de HS y monitorear las estrategias de manejo.

Transverse and dorso-ventral changes in thoracic dimension during equine locomotion.

Changes in shape of the equine thorax during locomotion are not well defined, although it has been shown recently that the transverse hemi-diameter changes its dimension by up to 80mm on the side of the trailing forelimb during gallop, despite minimal change in thoracic circumference. The aim of this project was to analyse transverse and dorso-ventral changes in shape of the thorax simultaneously, and to determine if leading limb, treadmill slope and speed have an effect on these shape changes. Reflective markers were placed on the horse's hemi-thorax and movement of the markers was recorded using a motion capture system while the horse trotted and cantered on a treadmill. Treadmill speed and slope, and the lead the horse cantered on were varied to determine the effects these had on transverse hemi-diameter and dorso-ventral diameter. There was a negative correlation between transverse and dorso-ventral changes in thoracic dimension, the strength of which increased with speed on the trailing limb side. On the leading side, the relationship was either weakly negative or positive. The changes in dimension of the hemi-thorax were significantly greater on the trailing side compared to the leading side. Speed had small effects on thoracic shape changes, but inclined exercise caused an increase in transverse hemi-diameter on the trailing side of the thorax. The changes in thoracic shape are unlikely to contribute substantially to ventilation and rib motion is likely to be due to protraction and retraction of the forelimbs. However, it may reflect asynchronous ventilation of lung lobes and partially explain the prevalence of exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage.

The activity and expression of chitinase in the equine lung and its activity in normal horses and animals with recurrent airway obstruction.

Recurrent airway obstruction (RAO) is a chronic inflammatory condition in equine lung, which may share a common immunological basis with human asthma, in which dysregulated Th2 responses occur. Mammals express chitinases and chitinase-like proteins, two of which are active enzymes, chitotriosidase and acidic mammalian chitinase (AMCase). Both enzymes are upregulated in a range of inflammatory conditions, including asthma. We investigated the activity of chitinase in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from horses with and without RAO in response to organic dust challenges. No significant differences were found in activity, although in one study RAO animals had elevated chitinase activity that fell short of statistical significance. The pH optimum and pH lability of the activity was consistent with the presence of chitotriosidase. RT-PCR amplification of the mRNA encoding chitotriosidase and AMCase in normal equine lung showed that chitotriosidase, but not AMCase, is expressed in trachea, bronchi, and peripheral lung tissue. The gene for chitotriosidase was identified from the Equus caballus (horse) genome 1.1 database and its similarity to the same genes from other species was determined. The results of this study indicate that the involvement of chitotriosidase in RAO is uncertain.

Effect of intravenous lidocaine on heart rate, systolic arterial blood pressure and cough responses to endotracheal intubation in propofol-anaesthetized dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of intravenous lidocaine on coughing and variations in heart rate (HR) and systolic arterial pressure (SAP) at endotracheal intubation in propofol-anaesthetized dogs. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, randomized, blinded clinical study. ANIMALS: Eighty dogs, ASA grades I/II. METHODS: Dogs were randomly assigned to one of two treatments, with dogs in the lidocaine group receiving 1 mg kg(-1) lidocaine intravenously and those in the saline group receiving 0.05 mL kg(-1) saline intravenously before induction of anaesthesia with up to 6.5 mg kg(-1) propofol intravenously. An electrocardiogram was recorded continuously. Heart rate was calculated and SAP (using Doppler ultrasonic flow detection) was recorded at the following time points: pre-treatment, following lidocaine or saline administration, before and after intubation. The occurrence, number and strength of coughs were recorded. Systolic arterial pressure and HR were compared using one-sample t-tests to examine whether SAP and HR changed with test drug administration or following intubation. The number of coughs was compared between groups using t-tests. A cross tabulation and chi-square or Fisher's exact test was used to compare proportions of dogs that coughed and intensity of coughing in each group. The level of significance was set at p < 0.05. RESULTS: Heart rate did not change in either group. Systolic arterial blood pressure increased following intubation in both the lidocaine (p = 0.003) and saline groups (p = 0.001). There was no difference in the increase in SAP or in the number or intensity of coughs at intubation between groups. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Intravenous lidocaine had no effect on the occurrence or intensity of coughing or on changes in SAP at endotracheal intubation in dogs anaesthetized with propofol. The use of 1 mg kg(-1) lidocaine intravenously before intubation in dogs to attenuate cough and the pressor response was not supported.

Early onset airway obstruction in response to organic dust in the horse.

Equine recurrent airway obstruction (RAO) has been used as a naturally occurring model of human asthma. However, it is unknown whether there is an early-phase response in RAO. The aim of this study was to determine whether exposure to organic dust induces immediate changes in lung function in RAO-affected horses, which could be mediated by airway mast cells. Six RAO-affected horses in remission and six control horses were challenged with hay-straw dust suspension by nebulization. Total respiratory resistance at 1 Hz, measured by forced oscillation, was increased from 0.62 +/- 0.09 cmH(2)O.l(-1).s (mean +/- SE) to 1.23 +/- 0.20 cmH(2)O.l(-1).s 15 min after nebulization in control horses (P = 0.023) but did not change significantly in the RAO group. Total respiratory reactance at 1 Hz (P = 0.005) was significantly lower in the control horses (-0.77 +/- 0.07 cmH(2)O.l(-1).s) than in the RAO group (-0.49 +/- 0.04 cmH(2)O.l(-1).s) 15 min after nebulization. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) histamine concentration was significantly elevated 10 and 20 min postnebulization in control horses but not in RAO horses. Minimum reactance at 1 Hz in the early postnebulization period significantly correlated with both prechallenge BALF mast cell numbers (r = -0.65, P = 0.02) and peak BALF histamine concentration postnebulization (r = -0.61, P = 0.04). In conclusion, RAO horses, unlike human asthmatic patients, do not exhibit an early-phase response. However, healthy control horses do demonstrate a mild but significant early (<20 min) phase response to inhaled organic dust. This response may serve to decrease the subsequent dose of dust inhaled and as such provide a protective mechanism, which may be compromised in RAO horses.

Effect of acute airway inflammation on the pulmonary antioxidant status.

Effects of acute airway inflammation induced by organic dust inhalation on pulmonary antioxidant status were investigated in healthy horses and horses affected by recurrent airway obstruction. Exposure to organic dust induced acute airway neutrophilia, which was associated with increases in elastase and decreases in ascorbic acid concentrations in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. However, markers of oxidative stress were unaffected, as was hydrogen peroxide in breath condensate. Decreases in ascorbic acid correlated with increased respiratory resistance (P = .001) when both groups were combined. In conclusion, acute neutrophilic airway inflammation does not result in significant evidence of oxidative stress in horses affected by recurrent airway obstruction.

Application of the comet assay for investigation of oxidative DNA damage in equine peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

Oxidative stress occurs when antioxidant defense mechanisms are overwhelmed by free radicals and may lead to DNA damage, which has been implicated in processes such as aging and diseases such as cancer. The two main techniques presently used to quantify DNA damage are measurement of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine and the Comet assay (also known as single-cell gel electrophoresis). The aim of this study was to apply the comet assay to equine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and identify two conditions in which we hypothesized that oxidative DNA damage would be increased in PBMCs: aging and equine recurrent airway obstruction (RAO, a condition similar to human asthma). The images obtained were similar to those previously published for humans, cats, and dogs. The optimum concentration of H(2)O(2) to estimate susceptibility to exogenous damage was 50 microM. Mean intraassay coefficients of variation were 4.7 and 9.7% for endogenous and exogenous tail-DNA quantities, respectively, and 7.3 and 8.3%, respectively, for interassay coefficients. There was no significant difference in either endogenous or exogenous percentages of tail DNA for samples collected from six ponies on three consecutive days. There was no significant difference in endogenous, exogenous, or exogenous (corrected for endogenous) oxidative DNA damage between mature and aged ponies. However, young pony foals had significantly less endogenous DNA damage than mature or aged ponies (P < 0.05). RAO-affected horses without airway inflammation (i.e., in clinical remission) had significantly greater endogenous damage compared with non-RAO-affected control animals (P = 0.009). There was a significant correlation between endogenous percentage of tail DNA in PBMCs and red blood cell hemolysate glutathione concentration (r = 0.720; P < 0.001). In conclusion, the comet assay appears to be suitable for investigating DNA damage in equine PBMCs.

Breath condensate hydrogen peroxide correlates with both airway cytology and epithelial lining fluid ascorbic acid concentration in the horse.

The relationship between hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) concentration in expired breath condensate (EBC) and cytology of the respiratory tract obtained from tracheal wash (TW) or bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), and epithelial lining fluid (ELF) antioxidant status is unknown. To examine this we analysed the concentration of H2O2 in breath condensate from healthy horses and horses affected by recurrent airway obstruction (RAO), a condition considered to be an animal model of human asthma. The degree of airway inflammation was determined by assessing TW inflammation as mucus, cell density and neutrophil scores, and by BAL cytology. ELF antioxidant status was determined by measurement of ascorbic acid, dehydroascorbate, reduced and oxidised glutathione, uric acid and alpha-tocopherol concentrations. RAO-affected horses with marked airway inflammation had significantly higher concentrations of breath condensate H2O2 than control horses and RAO-affected horses in the absence of inflammation (2.0 +/- 0.5 micromol/l. 0.4 +/- 0.2 micromol/l and 0.9 +/- 0.2 micromol/l H2O2, respectively; p < 0.0001). The concentration of breath condensate H2O2 was related inversely to the concentration of ascorbic acid in ELF (r = -0.80; p < 0.0001) and correlated positively with TW inflammation score (r = 0.76, p < 0.0001) and BAL neutrophil count (r = 0.80, p < 0.0001). We conclude that the concentration of H2O2 in breath condensate influences the ELF ascorbic acid concentration and provides a non-invasive diagnostic indicator of the severity of neutrophilic airway inflammation.

Pulmonary epithelial lining fluid and plasma ascorbic acid concentrations in horses affected by recurrent airway obstruction.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the pulmonary epithelial lining fluid (ELF) concentrations and degree of oxidation of ascorbic acid in horses affected by recurrent airway obstruction (RAO) in the presence and absence of neutrophilic airway inflammation. ANIMALS: 6 RAO-affected horses and 8 healthy control horses. PROCEDURE: Nonenzymatic antioxidant concentrations were determined in RBC, plasma, and ELF samples of control horses and RAO-affected horses in the presence and absence of airway inflammation. RESULTS: ELF ascorbic acid concentration was decreased in RAO-affected horses with airway inflammation (median, 0.06 mmol/L; 25th and 75th percentiles, 0.0 and 0.4 mmol/L), compared with RAO-affected horses without airway inflammation (1.0 mmol/L; 0.7 and 1.5 mmol/L) and control horses (2.2 mmol/L; 1.4 and 2.2 mmol/L). Epithelial lining fluid ascorbic acid remained significantly lower in RAO-affected horses without airway inflammation than in control horses. Moreover, the ELF ascorbic acid redox ratio (ie, ratio of the concentrations of dehydroascorbate to total ascorbic acid) was higher in RAO-affected horses with airway inflammation (median, 0.85; 25th and 75th percentiles, 0.25 and 1.00), compared with RAO-affected horses without airway inflammation (0.04; 0.02 and 0.22). The number of neutrophils in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was inversely related to the ELF ascorbic acid concentration (r = -0.81) and positively correlated with the ascorbic acid redox ratio (r = 0.65). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Neutrophilic inflammation in horses affected by RAO is associated with a reduction in the ELF ascorbic acid pool. Nutritional supplementation with ascorbic acid derivatives in horses affected by RAO is an area for further investigation.

Pulmonary bioavailability of ascorbic acid in an ascorbate-synthesising species, the horse.

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a non-enzymatic antioxidant important in protecting the lung against oxidative damage and is decreased in lung lining fluid of horses with airway inflammation. To examine possible therapeutic regimens in a species with ascorbate-synthesising capacity, we studied the effects of oral supplementation of two forms of ascorbic acid, (each equivalent to 20 mg ascorbic acid per kg body weight) on the pulmonary and systemic antioxidant status of six healthy ponies in a 3 x 3 Latin square design. Two weeks supplementation with ascorbyl palmitate significantly increased mean plasma ascorbic acid concentrations compared to control (29 +/- 5 and 18 +/- 7 micromol/l, respectively; p < 0.05). Calcium ascorbyl-2-monophosphate, a more stable form of ascorbic acid, also increased mean plasma ascorbic acid concentrations, but not significantly (23 +/- 1 micromol/l; p = 0.07). The concentration of ascorbic acid in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid increased in five out of six ponies following supplementation with either ascorbyl palmitate or calcium ascorbyl-2-monophosphate compared with control (30 +/- 10, 25 +/- 4 and 18 +/- 8 micromol/l, respectively; p < 0.01). Neither supplement altered the concentration of glutathione, uric acid or alpha-tocopherol in plasma or bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. In conclusion, the concentration of lung lining fluid ascorbic acid is increased following ascorbic acid supplementation (20 mg/kg body weight) in an ascorbate-synthesising species.

Comparison of the cardiopulmonary effects of anesthesia maintained by continuous infusion of romifidine, guaifenesin, and ketamine with anesthesia maintained by inhalation of halothane in horses.

OBJECTIVE: To compare cardiopulmonary responses during anesthesia maintained with halothane and responses during anesthesia maintained by use of a total intravenous anesthetic (TIVA) regimen in horses. ANIMALS: 7 healthy adult horses (1 female, 6 geldings). PROCEDURE: Each horse was anesthetized twice. Romifidine was administered IV, and anesthesia was induced by IV administration of ketamine. Anesthesia was maintained for 75 minutes by administration of halothane (HA) or IV infusion of romifidine, guaifenesin, and ketamine (TIVA). The order for TIVA or HA was randomized. Cardiopulmonary variables were measured 40, 60, and 75 minutes after the start of HA orTIVA. RESULTS: Systolic, diastolic, and mean carotid arterial pressures, velocity time integral, and peak acceleration of aortic blood flow were greater, and systolic, diastolic, and mean pulmonary arterial pressure were lower at all time points for TIVA than for HA. Pre-ejection period was shorter and ejection time was longer for TIVA than for HA. Heart rate was greater for HA at 60 minutes. Minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation were greater and inspiratory time was longer for TIVA than for HA at 75 minutes. The PaCO2 was higher at 60 and 75 minutes for HA than forTIVA. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Horses receiving a constant-rate infusion of romifidine, guaifenesin, and ketamine maintained higher arterial blood pressures than when they were administered HA. There was some indication that left ventricular function may be better during TIVA, but influences of preload and afterload on measured variables could account for some of these differences.

Changes in circulatory antioxidant status in horses during prolonged exercise.

Prolonged low-medium intensity exercise is associated with increased oxidative stress in humans. We hypothesized that competitive equine endurance racing would induce changes in circulatory antioxidants and produce systemic oxidative stress. Forty horses competing in a 140-km endurance race in warm conditions [shade temperature 15-19 degrees C; 62-88% relative humidity (%RH)] were sampled before (Pre), immediately after exercise (End) and at approximately 16 h into recovery (+16 h). Plasma ascorbic acid concentration was not different between Pre [11.1 (median); 4.6-20.3 micromol/L (range)] and End [9.7; 3.0-38.9 (range) micromol/L] but was significantly decreased at +16 h (5.5; 2.8-15.5 micromol/L; P < 0.05). Total red cell hemolysate glutathione (TGSH) concentration was significantly reduced by exercise (Pre 1261; 883-1532 micromol/L; End 1065; 757-1334 micromol/L; P < 0.05) and at +16 h recovery (1032; 752-1362 micromol/L; P < 0.05). Glutathione redox ratio was unchanged by exercise but was significantly decreased at +16 h compared with that at both Pre and End (P < 0.05). The concentration of total barbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in plasma was increased compared with that at Pre (309; 66-1048 nmol/L), both at End (408; 170-1196 nmol/L; P < 0.05) and +16 h (380; 99-1161 nmol/L; P < 0.05). alpha-Tocopherol was unchanged by exercise or recovery. Mean race speed was 16.5 +/- 1.6 km/h and ranged from 13.9 to 19.7 km/h. Mean speed during competition in horses that completed the full 140 km (n = 28) was significantly correlated with end of exercise ascorbic acid (r = 0.622; P = 0.0004). Although there were increases in creatine phosphokinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and TBARS and a loss of TGSH, this study failed to demonstrate evidence of classical oxidative stress.