Investigating associations between caffeinated beverage consumption and later alcohol consumption among early adolescents.

Previous research has demonstrated that caffeinated beverage consumption predicts alcohol consumption among early adolescents. This study aimed to investigate this association in two ways: (1) by examining if this association remained significant once other established risk factors for alcohol were adjusted for statistically; and (2) by considering three possible moderators of this association: gender, sensation-seeking, and parental monitoring. Data from the Camden Youth Development Study, a longitudinal, community-based study of middle-school students, were used. Youth were initially assessed in 6th and 7th grade and followed-up 16 months later. Self-reports of frequency of energy drink, coffee, and alcohol consumption, as well as sensation-seeking, perceived peer and best friend alcohol use, alcohol expectancies, and parental monitoring, were used. Results indicated that both energy drink and coffee consumption predicted later alcohol consumption, even after adjusting for other risk factors for alcohol consumption. Parental monitoring was a significant moderator of this link, such that youth who consumed energy drinks and reported low parental monitoring were particularly at risk for later alcohol consumption. These findings indicate that the link between earlier caffeine consumption and later alcohol consumption is not simply due to the co-occurrence of caffeine consumption with other risk factors for alcohol use. In addition, risk associated with early energy drink consumption appears to be particularly pronounced for youth in families characterized by low parental monitoring.

Interactions Between Energy Drink Consumption and Sleep Problems: Associations with Alcohol Use Among Young Adolescents.

Background: Energy drink consumption and sleep problems are both associated with alcohol use among adolescents. In addition, caffeine consumption (including energy drinks) is associated with sleep problems. However, information about how these three constructs may interact is limited. The goal of this study was to examine potential interactions between energy drink consumption and sleep problems in the concurrent prediction of alcohol use among young adolescents. Coffee and soda consumption were also examined for comparison. Methods: Participants from the Camden Youth Development Study were included (n = 127; mean age = 13.1; 68% Hispanic, 29% African American) and questionnaire measures of frequency of caffeinated beverage consumption (energy drinks, coffee, and soda), sleep (initial insomnia, sleep disturbances, daytime fatigue, and sleep duration), and alcohol consumption were used. Regression analyses were conducted to examine interactions between caffeinated beverage consumption and sleep in the concurrent prediction of alcohol use. Results: Energy drink consumption interacted with initial insomnia and daytime fatigue to concurrently predict particularly frequent alcohol use among those with either of these sleep-related problems and energy drink consumption. The pattern of results for coffee consumption was similar for insomnia but reached only a trend level of significance. Results of analyses examining soda consumption were nonsignificant. Conclusions: Young adolescents who both consume energy drinks and experience initial insomnia and/or daytime fatigue are at particularly high risk for alcohol use. Coffee consumption appears to be associated with similar patterns. Longitudinal research is needed to explain the developmental pathways by which these associations emerge, as well as mediators and moderators of these associations.

Sleep patterns and problems among early adolescents: Associations with alcohol use.

INTRODUCTION: Sleep and sleep-related problems are associated with alcohol use and related problems among adults. However, existing research on associations between sleep and alcohol use among early adolescents is minimal, and potential individual and family factors that may affect this association remain largely unexplored. We examined potential associations between frequency of alcohol use and initial insomnia, subjective daytime sleepiness, sleep irregularity, and disturbed sleep among a low-income, ethnic minority sample of early adolescents; we also considered whether psychopathology symptoms and/or parental monitoring accounted for any associations found. METHODS: 127 youth who participated in the Camden Youth Development Study (64 male; mean age=13.2; 71% Hispanic, 32% African-American) were assessed using self-report measures of sleep, alcohol use, psychopathology symptoms (depressive and conduct disorder), and parental monitoring; in addition, teacher reports of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder were used. RESULTS: Initial insomnia and daytime sleepiness (but not sleep irregularity or disturbed sleep) were associated with frequency of alcohol use. The association between initial insomnia and alcohol use remained significant when each form of psychopathology and parental monitoring were adjusted for. CONCLUSIONS: Among early adolescents, frequency of alcohol use is associated with initial insomnia, even once symptoms of psychopathology and family environment (parental monitoring) are adjusted for. Longitudinal research investigating the direction of this effect and other possible mediators and moderators would be useful in developing preventative and treatment interventions.

Energy Drink and Coffee Consumption and Psychopathology Symptoms Among Early Adolescents: Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Associations.

Background: Little is known about possible links between energy drink use and psychopathology among youth. This study examined cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between energy drink consumption and psychopathology among early adolescents. In addition, associations between psychopathology and coffee consumption were examined to assess whether findings were specific to energy drinks or also applied to another commonly used caffeinated beverage. Methods: One hundred forty-four youth who participated in the Camden Youth Development Study (72 males; mean age 11.9 at wave 1; 65% Hispanic, 30% African American) were assessed using self-report measures of frequency of energy drink and coffee consumption and depression, anxiety, conduct disorder (CD) symptoms, and teacher reports of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Youth (92%) were reassessed 16 months later. Results: Concurrently, energy drink and coffee consumption were associated with similar psychopathology symptoms; when the other beverage was adjusted for, energy drinks remained associated with CD and coffee remained associated with panic anxiety. Initial energy drink consumption predicted increasing ADHD and CD over time, though the association with CD dropped to a trend level of significance when coffee was adjusted for. Initial levels of hyperactive ADHD predicted increasing coffee consumption over time; this association remained when energy drinks were controlled. Social anxiety was associated with less increase in energy drink consumption over time, controlling for coffee. Conclusion: Energy drink and coffee consumption among early adolescents are concurrently associated with similar psychopathology symptoms. Longitudinally, the associations between these beverages and psychopathology differ, indicating that these substances have differing implications for development over time.

Associations Between Depression and Obesity in Parents and Their Late-Adolescent Offspring: A Community-Based Study.

OBJECTIVE: Major depressive disorder (MDD) and obesity are associated within individuals, but little is known about the association between MDD and obesity within families. We hypothesized that parental MDD would predict increased risk for adolescent obesity and that parental obesity would predict increased risk for adolescent MDD. METHODS: Participants were drawn from the community-based Minnesota Twin Family Study (N = 7307; 17 years old: n = 3774). Parents and their 17-year-old offspring were assessed for MDD using a structured diagnostic interview, and direct assessments of height and weight were conducted (and diagnoses of obesity were derived from these measurements). RESULTS: Parental MDD was associated with offspring obesity (odds ratio [OR] = 1.74, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.24-2.46). ORs representing the risk associated with maternal and paternal MDD were similar (OR = 1.42, 95% CI = 1.02-1.92; OR = 1.40, 95% CI = 0.88-2.20, respectively). This parental effect remained significant when adjusting for parental obesity and offspring MDD (OR = 1.67, 95% CI = 1.18-2.37). Maternal obesity was associated with increased risk for MDD in offspring (OR = 1.32, 95% CI = 1.06-1.64), but paternal obesity was associated with decreased risk for MDD among offspring (OR = 0.70, 95% CI = 0.54-0.91). These effects remained significant when adjusting for parental MDD and offspring obesity (OR = 1.36, 95% CI = 1.07-1.73; OR = 0.65, CI = 0.49-0.87, respectively). There were no differences in these findings by offspring sex (p values for all tests of a sex interaction term > .374). CONCLUSIONS: We found general support for hypothesized cross-disorder associations between MDD and obesity in parents and offspring, suggesting that a shared etiology may underlie these associations. Contrary to prediction, paternal obesity was associated with decreased risk for offspring MDD, a finding that requires further investigation.

Energy drink consumption and later alcohol use among early adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: Little is known about the association between energy drink and other substance use in early adolescence despite the fact that the consumption of energy drinks during this developmental period is becoming increasingly common. The aim of this study was to examine concurrent and longitudinal associations between energy drink and alcohol use among middle school students. In addition, sensation seeking and parental monitoring were examined as factors that could potentially explain any associations found. METHODS: A sample of 144 youth participating in the Camden Youth Development Study was utilized. Self-report questionnaire data was collected over a 16-month period. RESULTS: Frequency of energy drink use at the initial assessment predicted increases in frequency of alcohol use 16 months later (adjusting for initial frequency of alcohol use). Levels of parental monitoring partially accounted for this association; in contrast, there was no evidence that sensation seeking was related to this association. CONCLUSION: Youth who consume energy drinks in early adolescence are at risk for alcohol use later; this may be partially related to low levels of parental monitoring being associated with the consumption of both substances. Future research is needed to further explain this association; this may lead to opportunities for early intervention for youth at high risk for alcohol use.

Interactions Between Internalizing Symptoms and Urgency in the Prediction of Alcohol Use and Expectancies Among Low-Income, Minority Early Adolescents.

This study examined whether urgency, a disposition to rash action under conditions of strong emotion, moderates associations between internalizing symptoms and alcohol use and related expectancies. Data from the Camden Youth Development Study, a longitudinal, community-based study of early adolescents (N = 144, mean age at intake = 11.9 years; 65% Hispanic, 30% African-American; 50% male), were used. Self-report questionnaire measures of depressive symptoms, social and generalized anxiety symptoms, urgency, alcohol use, and alcohol expectancies were used. Mixed models were used to examine the effects of internalizing symptoms, urgency, and their interaction on alcohol use and expectancy trajectories over time. Depressive symptoms interacted with urgency such that youth with high levels of both tended to have elevated levels of global positive alcohol expectancies. Social anxiety symptoms interacted with urgency to be associated with increasing levels of social behavior alcohol expectancies such that youth with high levels of both tended to experience particular increases in these expectancies over time. Generalized anxiety was not found to be associated with alcohol-related constructs. Therefore, high levels of urgency combine with depressive and social anxiety symptoms to be associated with particularly increased risk for alcohol expectancies that are associated with later alcohol use and problems, indicating particular risk for youth with these combinations of personality traits and psychopathology symptoms.

Associations between dispositions to rash action and internalizing and externalizing symptoms in children.

Impulsivity is not a unitary construct; instead, dispositions to rash action can be divided into five moderately-correlated dimensions. However, the associations between these dimensions and symptoms of psychopathology among youth remain unclear. The goal of this study was to examine associations between different dispositions to rash action and psychopathology in a community sample of middle school youth. One hundred forty-four youth (M age = 11.9; 65% Hispanic, 30% African American; 50% male; 81% qualifying for free school lunches) participated in this study. Self-reported questionnaire measures of dispositions to rash action (lack of planning, lack of perseverance, sensation seeking, negative urgency, and positive urgency) and psychopathology symptoms (conduct disorder [CD], alcohol use, depression, overall anxiety, panic, generalized anxiety, social anxiety, and separation anxiety, as well as teacher reports of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD] inattentive and hyperactive symptoms) were used. Negative and positive urgency were positively associated with all symptom types examined except certain anxiety subtypes (and positive urgency was not associated with ADHD symptoms). Lack of planning was positively associated with externalizing and depressive symptoms. Lack of perseverance was positively associated with CD. Sensation seeking was positively associated with both CD and alcohol use. When other dispositions were adjusted for, negative urgency remained a positive predictor of CD, whereas positive urgency remained a positive predictor of depressive and panic symptoms. Sensation seeking was negatively associated with separation anxiety. Psychopathology symptoms are differentially related to dispositions to rash action in children; emotion-based dispositions to rash action may be particularly important targets for future research.

Associations between substance use disorders and major depression in parents and late adolescent-emerging adult offspring: an adoption study.

AIMS: To examine whether major depressive disorder (MDD) and substance use disorders [SUDs: specifically, nicotine dependence (ND), alcohol use disorders (AUDs), and cannabis use disorders (CUDs)] in parents predicted increased risk for these disorders in late adolescent-emerging adult offspring and, specifically, the extent to which the pattern of risk differed for adopted and non-adopted youth. PARTICIPANTS: Late adolescent and emerging adult participants from the Sibling Interaction and Behavior Study (mean age = 18.8), a community-based investigation of adopted and non-adopted adolescents, and their parents (adoptive parents of adopted youth, biological parents of non-adopted adolescents) were included. MEASUREMENTS: Structured interviews were used to assess these disorders. FINDINGS: (i) When the same disorder in parents and adolescents was examined, parental MDD was associated with increased risk for MDD among both adopted (P < 0.001) and non-adopted (P < 0.01) adolescents; in contrast, SUDs were associated with increased risk for the same SUD in non-adopted offspring (all P < 0.01). (ii) When cross-SUD effects were examined, for the most part, each SUD was associated with increased risk for other SUDs among non-adopted but not adopted offspring (most P < 0.05). (iii) When MDD-SUD associations were examined, parental ND and CUDs predicted increased risk for MDD in non-adopted (P < 0.001), but not adopted, adolescents. These effects tended to remain significant when adjusting for within-person comorbidity (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Major depressive disorder in parents appears to be a risk factor for late adolescent-emerging adult major depressive disorder but not substance use disorder in offspring, with this risk being environmentally mediated. Substance use disorder in parents appears, via genetic mediation, to increase risk of substance use disorder in adolescent offspring, and cannabis and nicotine use disorders in parents contribute similarly to major depressive disorder in those offspring.

Anxiety disorders and substance use disorders: different associations by anxiety disorder.

Anxiety disorders (ADs) and substance use disorders (SUDs) often occur together, but the strength of this association and their apparent order of onset differ across studies. The goals of this study were to examine: (1) which ADs were associated with which SUDs, and (2) among people who experienced both an AD and a SUD, which disorder had an earlier onset. Lifetime diagnoses from the National Comorbidity Survey-Replication (n=9282) were used. Social phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and agoraphobia were positively associated with all SUDs. Among people with both an AD and a SUD, the order of onset differed by anxiety type: social phobia nearly always had an onset prior to any SUD; panic disorder and agoraphobia tended to occur prior to some SUDs; and generalized anxiety disorder tended to occur after the onset of at least one SUD. Therefore, all ADs are positively associated with SUDs, but ADs differ in the timing of their onset relative to comorbid SUDs.

Interactions Between MAOA Genotype and Receipt of Public Assistance: Predicting Change in Depressive Symptoms and Body Mass Index.

Response to stress is determined in part by genetically-influenced regulation of the monoamine system. We examined the interaction of a stressor (receipt of public assistance) and a gene regulating the monoamine system (MAOA) in the prediction of change in adolescent depressive symptoms and body mass index (BMI). Participants were drawn from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health (AddHealth) genetically-informative subsample. We focused on males due to the fact that males only have one MAOA allele. Growth curve analyses were conducted to assess the association between public assistance, MAOA allele, and their interaction and the intercept and slope of depressive symptoms and BMI. The results indicated that among males, MAOA allele type interacted with receipt of public assistance in the prediction of rate of change in both depressive symptoms and BMI from early adolescence through early adulthood. Males with the short MAOA allele whose families received public assistance tended to experience increased growth in depressive symptoms and BMI. Implications of the findings for understanding the relations among stress, physiology, and development are discussed.

Explaining associations between cannabis use disorders in adolescence and later major depression: a test of the psychosocial failure model.

AIMS: Cannabis use disorders (CUDs) in adolescence are associated with increased risk for later major depressive disorder (MDD). The goal of this study was to examine the "psychosocial failure" explanation for this association: the possibility that psychosocial consequences of CUDs in adolescence account for the increased risk for later MDD. METHODS: Participants (n=1252) were drawn from the community-based sample of the Minnesota Twin Family Study and were assessed at ages 17, 20, and 24. CUDs and MDD were assessed via structured interview. "Psychosocial failure" was defined as educational failure (high school dropout), occupational failure (persistent unemployment), or engagement in crime. RESULTS: Psychosocial failure partially mediated the association between CUDs in adolescence and later MDD. CONCLUSIONS: The adverse psychosocial consequences of CUDs in adolescence partially - but not fully - account for the observed association between early CUDs and later MDD.

Associations between subtypes of major depressive episodes and substance use disorders.

The goal of this study was to examine whether certain subtypes of major depressive episodes (MDEs)-defined by their particular constellations of symptoms-were more strongly associated with substance use disorders (SUDs), compared to other subtypes of MDEs. Participants were adults in the National Comorbidity Survey-Replication sample who met DSM criteria for at least one lifetime MDE (n=1829). Diagnostic assessments were conducted using structured interviews. The following MDE subtypes were examined: atypical, psychomotor agitation, psychomotor retardation, melancholic, and suicidal. The results indicated that: (1) suicidal MDEs were associated with increased risk for all SUDs; (2) melancholic MDEs were associated with increased risk for alcohol use disorders; and (3) psychomotor agitation was associated with increased risk for alcohol dependence. These associations did not differ significantly by gender. Adjusting for age, the severity of the MDE, the age of onset of the first MDE, and psychiatric comorbidity did not substantially change the results. Supplemental analyses examining only diagnoses that occurred in the year prior to the assessment demonstrated a similar pattern (with MDEs characterized by psychomotor agitation being associated with drug use disorders as well). Exploratory order of onset analyses indicated that participants with lifetime MDEs and SUDs tended to report an MDE onset prior to the SUD onset, and those who experienced a suicidal MDE at some time in their lives were particularly likely to have had their first MDE prior to developing a SUD. Therefore, risk for lifetime SUDs differs according to the particular set of symptoms experienced during MDEs.

Associations between heavy drinking and changes in impulsive behavior among adolescent boys.

BACKGROUND: Impulsive behavior in humans predicts the onset of drinking during adolescence and alcohol use disorders (AUDs) in adulthood. It is also possible, however, that heavy drinking may increase impulsive behavior by affecting the development of brain areas that support behavioral control or through other associated mechanisms. This study examined whether drinking heavily during adolescence is related to changes in impulsive behavior with a specific focus on how the association differs across individuals, contingent on the developmental course of their impulsiveness. METHOD: Data came from a sample of boys (N = 503) who were followed annually from approximate age 8 to age 18 and again at approximate age 24/25. Heavy drinking was defined as experiencing a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) level of 0.08% or higher. At each assessment, the parent and child each reported whether the child was impulsive. RESULTS: First, group-based trajectory analysis was used to identify 4 groups differing in the level and slopes of their trajectories of impulsive behavior from age 9 to age 17: low (13.9%), early adolescence-limited (18.7%), moderate (60.8%), and high (6.6%). These trajectory groups differed in their prevalence of any heavy drinking, peak BACs, and rates of alcohol dependence in adolescence and AUD in early adulthood, with the less impulsive groups being lower on these measures than the more impulsive groups. Heavy drinking was then entered into the model as a time-varying covariate; this measure was lagged so that the results represent change in impulsive behavior the year following heavy drinking. Among boys on the moderate trajectory, those who drank heavily were rated as significantly more impulsive the following year compared to those who did not drink heavily. CONCLUSIONS: The association between heavy drinking and impulsive behavior may depend on earlier levels of impulsive behavior with those who are moderately impulsive appearing to be at greatest risk for increased impulsive behavior following heavy drinking. Further research is needed to clarify this association.

Associations between first use of substances and change in internalizing symptoms among girls: differences by symptom trajectory and substance use type.

This study examined how girls' initial use of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana related to changes in depressive, generalized anxiety, and social anxiety symptoms, and whether these changes varied based on which internalizing symptom trajectories the girls were on. Data came from the Pittsburgh Girls Study, a community-based study of girls assessed at ages 5 to 8 and followed for 6 years. Growth mixture modeling was used to identify trajectory groups. The results indicated that for girls on a "high depressive symptom" trajectory, initial use of marijuana was related to further increases in depressive symptoms. Initial uses of alcohol and cigarettes were associated with overall increases in depressive symptoms, and the initial use of cigarettes was associated with an overall increase in generalized anxiety symptoms. Initial use of all substances was related to change in social anxiety, but the direction of change varied by trajectory group and substance. Links between initial use and internalizing symptoms depended on the type of substance, type of internalizing symptom, and trajectory group.

Longitudinal associations between depressive symptoms and alcohol problems: The influence of comorbid delinquent behavior.

OBJECTIVE: Although numerous studies have demonstrated a positive association between depressive symptoms and alcohol problems and related disorders, it remains unclear whether this link can be explained by the joint co-occurrence of these disorders with delinquent behavior. This study examined the longitudinal associations between depressive symptoms and alcohol problems from early adolescence through early adulthood, while accounting for delinquent behavior and the potential interaction effects between delinquent behavior and each of these problems. METHOD: The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health sample of 20,728 adolescents, followed for 6 years, was used. Males and females were examined separately. Multilevel modeling was used to predict both initial levels and rate of change in alcohol problems based on levels of depressive symptoms and delinquent behavior (and their interaction), and initial level and rate of change in depressive symptoms based on alcohol problems and delinquent behavior (and their interaction). RESULTS: Once delinquent behavior was included in the model, the reciprocal positive associations between alcohol problems and depressive symptoms tended to remain significant. Some interactive effects between delinquent behavior and these problems were found, mainly in females. CONCLUSIONS: The reciprocal positive associations between alcohol problems and depressive symptoms over time are not fully due to their joint co-occurrence with delinquent behavior, though delinquent behavior does moderate these links in some cases.

Longitudinal associations between depression and substance dependence from adolescence through early adulthood.

AIMS: The association between depression and substance dependence is poorly understood; examinations of these two disorders over time during key developmental periods can provide insight into how these problems relate to each other. The goal of the present study was to examine longitudinal associations between depression and substance (alcohol and illicit drug) dependence during the period from adolescence through early adulthood. PARTICIPANTS: Participants in the Minnesota Twin Family Study, a community-based sample of 1252 youth and their families, were used. Youth were first assessed at age 17; they returned to the study at ages 20 and 24. MEASUREMENTS: Major depression and drug and alcohol dependence were assessed via structured interviews. Gender was examined as a possible moderator. FINDINGS: The results indicated that both substance dependence and depression showed stability over time--that is, each disorder was associated with increased risk for the same disorder later. Substance dependence between ages 17 and 20 predicted increased risk of depression between ages 20 and 24. These associations did not differ significantly by gender. CONCLUSIONS: Substance dependence during late adolescence predicts the subsequent occurrence of major depression.

Anxiety as a predictor of age at first use of substances and progression to substance use problems among boys.

This study examined associations of generalized and social anxiety with (1) age at first use of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana and (2) interval from first use to first problem use of each substance. Participants were 503 males who comprised the youngest cohort (first assessed in the first grade) of the Pittsburgh Youth Study, a longitudinal community-based study of boys. Annual assessments of generalized and social anxiety, delinquency, and substance use from first grade through high school were included. Both types of anxiety predicted earlier first use of alcohol and tobacco, and generalized anxiety predicted earlier first use of marijuana. Both types of anxiety predicted the progression from first use to problems related to marijuana. The effect of generalized anxiety tended to be significant above and beyond the effect of delinquency, while the effect of social anxiety on risk for first use of substances was not. Overall, the associations between anxiety and substance use and related problems depend on the class of substance and the type of anxiety.

Neighborhoods and genes and everything in between: understanding adolescent aggression in social and biological contexts.

Adolescent aggression was explored in relation to neighborhood and genetic characteristics. Child saturation (the proportion of the population consisting of children under the age of 15), ethnic heterogeneity, poverty, and urbanicity of neighborhoods were examined in relation to adolescent aggression in 12,098 adolescents followed longitudinally for 1 year. Longitudinal analyses indicated that child saturation was positively associated with increases in aggression, with this finding emerging among those living in the same neighborhood at both testing times and those who moved between testing times. In a subsample of males for whom genetic data were available, the relation of child saturation to adolescent aggression was moderated by the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene. The regression of aggression on child saturation was steeper for those with the low activity version of the MAOA allele than among those with the high activity version of the allele. The implications of the results for an understanding of the origins and ontogeny of aggression and personality disorders are discussed.