Associations of gender inequality with child malnutrition and mortality across 96 countries.

National efforts to reduce low birth weight (LBW) and child malnutrition and mortality prioritise economic growth. However, this may be ineffective, while rising gross domestic product (GDP) also imposes health costs, such as obesity and non-communicable disease. There is a need to identify other potential routes for improving child health. We investigated associations of the Gender Inequality Index (GII), a national marker of women's disadvantages in reproductive health, empowerment and labour market participation, with the prevalence of LBW, child malnutrition (stunting and wasting) and mortality under 5 years in 96 countries, adjusting for national GDP. The GII displaced GDP as a predictor of LBW, explaining 36% of the variance. Independent of GDP, the GII explained 10% of the variance in wasting and stunting and 41% of the variance in child mortality. Simulations indicated that reducing GII could lead to major reductions in LBW, child malnutrition and mortality in low- and middle-income countries. Independent of national wealth, reducing women's disempowerment relative to men may reduce LBW and promote child nutritional status and survival. Longitudinal studies are now needed to evaluate the impact of efforts to reduce societal gender inequality.

Body composition, leg length and blood pressure in a rural Italian population: a test of the capacity-load model.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Whereas adult weight or body mass index (BMI) are directly associated with blood pressure (BP), birth weight is inversely associated with BP. The scenario for height is more complex, as both tall and short stature have been associated with higher BP. We used a theoretical model treating sitting height (SH) and tissue masses (fat mass, lean mass) as components of metabolic load, and leg length (LL) as a marker of homeostatic metabolic capacity. We predicted that decreased capacity and increased load would be independently associated with increased BP.. METHODS AND RESULTS: Anthropometry, body composition (bio-electrical impedance analysis) and BP were measured in 601 adults (228 male) aged 20-91 years from three hill villages in southern Italy. Multiple regression analysis was used to investigate associations of body composition and anthropometry with BP. Adjusting for age, systolic BP (SBP) was associated with lean mass in males, and with adiposity in females, whereas diastolic BP (DBP) was associated with fat mass in both sexes. Associations of LL and SH with BP were in opposite directions. LL was inversely associated with SBP and DBP in males, with a similar trend evident in females. SH was directly associated with SBP and DBP in females, and with DBP in males. CONCLUSIONS: Consistent with our theoretical model, metabolic load is associated with increased BP, though differently between the sexes, whereas metabolic capacity is independently associated with lower BP. Our findings suggest that early growth improves hemodynamic tolerance of high metabolic load in adulthood..