Body mass index in offspring of mothers with diabetes mellitus: follow-up at 2, 4, 6, and 8 years of age / Índice de masa corporal en hijos de madres con diabetes mellitus: seguimiento a los 2, 4, 6 y 8 años de edad

Abstract Background: Offspring of mothers with diabetes mellitus (DM) during pregnancy may be at high risk for developmental alterations. This study aimed to identify the effects of maternal pre- and gestational diabetes on the body mass index of infants and children at two, four, six, and eight years of age. Methods: We studied children of mothers with type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes and a control group. Maternal and neonatal variables were analyzed for associations with children overweight/obesity. Results: Mothers with DM were older than controls (32 ± 6 vs. 22 ± 6 years, p < 0.001). The frequency of preeclampsia in mothers with DM was 28%. Gestational age and weight at birth were lower in infants from the groups of mothers with DM in comparison with controls (32.8 ± 3.1 vs. 36.4 ± 2.2 weeks, p < 0.001, and 1,637 ± 600 vs. 2,208 ± 518 g, p < 0.001, respectively). At 8 years of age, 47% of the offspring of mothers with DM type 2 had overweight/obesity (odds ratio (OR 8.25) 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.3-51, p = 0.01), while 27% of offspring of mothers with type 1 DM had overweight/obesity, and 10% of offspring of mothers with gestational diabetes presented overweight/obesity. Conclusions: Offspring of pre-gestational DM mothers have a higher risk to develop overweight/obesity, as was observed with follow-up until school age, for which they require continuous vigilance.

Resumen Introducción: Los hijos de madres con diabetes mellitus durante el embarazo pueden tener un alto riesgo de alteraciones del desarrollo. El objetivo de este estudio fue buscar los efectos de la diabetes pregestacional y gestacional en el índice de masa corporal de niños a los 2, 4, 6 y 8 años de edad. Métodos: Se estudiaron los hijos de madres con diabetes tipo 1, 2 y gestacional, así como un grupo control. Se analizaron las variables maternas y neonatales en búsqueda de una asociación con sobrepeso u obesidad en los niños. Resultados: La edad de las madres con diabetes mellitus fue mayor que la del grupo control (32 ± 6 vs. 22 ± 6 años, p < 0.001). La frecuencia de preeclampsia en las madres con diabetes mellitus fue del 28%. La edad gestacional y el peso al nacer fueron menores en los hijos de las madres con diabetes en comparación con los controles (32.8 ± 3.1 vs 36.4 ± 2.2 semanas, p < 0.001, y 1,637 ± 600 vs. 2,208 ± 518 g, p < 0.001, respectivamente). A los 8 años, el 47% de los hijos de madres con diabetes tipo 2 tuvieron sobrepeso u obesidad (RM: 8.25; intervalo de confianza del 95%: 1.3-51; p = 0.01), frente al 27% de los hijos de madres con diabetes tipo 1 y el 10% de los hijos de madres con diabetes gestacional. Conclusiones: Los hijos de madres con diabetes pregestacional presentan un mayor riesgo de desarrollar sobrepeso u obesidad, como se observó en el seguimiento hasta la edad escolar, por lo que requieren una vigilancia continua.

Body mass index in offspring of mothers with diabetes mellitus: follow-up at 2, 4, 6, and 8 years of age.

Background: Offspring of mothers with diabetes mellitus (DM) during pregnancy may be at high risk for developmental alterations. This study aimed to identify the effects of maternal pre- and gestational diabetes on the body mass index of infants and children at two, four, six, and eight years of age. Methods: We studied children of mothers with type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes and a control group. Maternal and neonatal variables were analyzed for associations with children overweight/obesity. Results: Mothers with DM were older than controls (32 ± 6 vs. 22 ± 6 years, p < 0.001). The frequency of preeclampsia in mothers with DM was 28%. Gestational age and weight at birth were lower in infants from the groups of mothers with DM in comparison with controls (32.8 ± 3.1 vs. 36.4 ± 2.2 weeks, p < 0.001, and 1,637 ± 600 vs. 2,208 ± 518 g, p < 0.001, respectively). At 8 years of age, 47% of the offspring of mothers with DM type 2 had overweight/obesity (odds ratio (OR 8.25) 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.3-51, p = 0.01), while 27% of offspring of mothers with type 1 DM had overweight/obesity, and 10% of offspring of mothers with gestational diabetes presented overweight/obesity. Conclusions: Offspring of pre-gestational DM mothers have a higher risk to develop overweight/obesity, as was observed with follow-up until school age, for which they require continuous vigilance.

Introducción: Los hijos de madres con diabetes mellitus durante el embarazo pueden tener un alto riesgo de alteraciones del desarrollo. El objetivo de este estudio fue buscar los efectos de la diabetes pregestacional y gestacional en el índice de masa corporal de niños a los 2, 4, 6 y 8 años de edad. Métodos: Se estudiaron los hijos de madres con diabetes tipo 1, 2 y gestacional, así como un grupo control. Se analizaron las variables maternas y neonatales en búsqueda de una asociación con sobrepeso u obesidad en los niños. Resultados: La edad de las madres con diabetes mellitus fue mayor que la del grupo control (32 ± 6 vs. 22 ± 6 años, p < 0.001). La frecuencia de preeclampsia en las madres con diabetes mellitus fue del 28%. La edad gestacional y el peso al nacer fueron menores en los hijos de las madres con diabetes en comparación con los controles (32.8 ± 3.1 vs 36.4 ± 2.2 semanas, p < 0.001, y 1,637 ± 600 vs. 2,208 ± 518 g, p < 0.001, respectivamente). A los 8 años, el 47% de los hijos de madres con diabetes tipo 2 tuvieron sobrepeso u obesidad (RM: 8.25; intervalo de confianza del 95%: 1.3-51; p = 0.01), frente al 27% de los hijos de madres con diabetes tipo 1 y el 10% de los hijos de madres con diabetes gestacional. Conclusiones: Los hijos de madres con diabetes pregestacional presentan un mayor riesgo de desarrollar sobrepeso u obesidad, como se observó en el seguimiento hasta la edad escolar, por lo que requieren una vigilancia continua.

Cochleopalpebral reflex: sensitivity and specificity in the auditory screening of newborns discharged from the neonatal intensive care unit / Reflejo cocleopalpebral: sensibilidad y especificidad en el tamiz auditivo de recién nacidos egresados de una unidad de cuidados intensivos neonatales

Abstract Background: The sensitivity and specificity of the clinical audiological evaluation in newborns are debatable compared to neurophysiological methods of a hearing evaluation. This study aimed to determine the sensitivity and specificity of the cochleopalpebral reflex as a clinical test for hearing screening in newborns. Methods: A case-control study was designed. Newborns discharged from a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) were included. Brainstem evoked auditory potentials were recorded. A wooden rattle was used to explore the cochleopalpebral reflex. The sensitivity and specificity of the cochleopalpebral reflex were calculated. Continuous data were analyzed with Student's t-test, with statistically significant p-values < 0.05. Results: We selected 450 newborns who were divided into two groups: group A, with bilateral sensory neural hearing loss (n = 150), and group B, with normal hearing (n = 300). Group A showed a significantly lower gestation age at birth (p = 0.005) compared to group B (32.5 ± 2.6 vs. 34.4 ± 3.5 weeks). In group A, the cochleopalpebral reflex's sensitivity was 80% using the wooden rattle. In group B, the specificity was 98%. Conclusions: The NICU discharged newborns' clinical hearing evaluation is not enough to exclude hearing loss. Although it may be the only diagnostic tool for hearing loss in some settings, its limitations should be considered.

Resumen Introducción: La sensibilidad y la especificidad de la evaluación audiológica clínica en recién nacidos son cuestionables en comparación con los métodos neurofisiológicos de evaluación auditiva. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar la sensibilidad y la especificidad del reflejo cocleopalpebral como prueba clínica de tamizaje auditivo en recién nacidos. Métodos: Se diseñó un estudio de casos y controles en el que se incluyeron recién nacidos egresados de una unidad de cuidados intensivos neonatales (UCIN). Se les efectuaron potenciales auditivos evocados de tallo cerebral. Para la exploración del reflejo cocleopalpebral se utilizó una matraca de madera. Se calcularon la sensibilidad y la especificidad del reflejo cocleopalpebral. Los datos continuos se analizaron con la prueba t de Student y se consideraron estadísticamente significativos los valores de p < 0.05. Resultados: Se seleccionaron 450 recién nacidos y se dividieron en dos grupos: el grupo A (n = 150) con hipoacusia sensorineural y el grupo B (n = 300) con audición normal. El grupo A mostró una diferencia significativa (p = 0.005) en cuanto a la edad de gestación al nacer en comparación con el grupo B (32.5 ± 2.6 vs. 34.4 ± 3.5 semanas). En el grupo A, la sensibilidad del reflejo cocleopalpebral fue del 80% utilizando la matraca de madera. En el grupo B se encontró una especificidad del 98%. Conclusiones: La evaluación del reflejo cocleopalpebral como prueba clínica de tamizaje auditivo en una población de recién nacidos egresados de una UCIN no es suficiente para descartar la pérdida de la audición. Aunque puede ser la única herramienta de diagnóstico para evaluar la pérdida de la audición en algunos casos, es importante considerar sus limitaciones.

Cochleopalpebral reflex: sensitivity and specificity in the auditory screening of newborns discharged from the neonatal intensive care unit.

BACKGROUND: The sensitivity and specificity of the clinical audiological evaluation in newborns are debatable compared to neurophysiological methods of a hearing evaluation. This study aimed to determine the sensitivity and specificity of the cochleopalpebral reflex as a clinical test for hearing screening in newborns. METHODS: A case-control study was designed. Newborns discharged from a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) were included. Brainstem evoked auditory potentials were recorded. A wooden rattle was used to explore the cochleopalpebral reflex. The sensitivity and specificity of the cochleopalpebral reflex were calculated. Continuous data were analyzed with Student's t-test, with statistically significant p-values < 0.05. RESULTS: We selected 450 newborns who were divided into two groups: group A, with bilateral sensory neural hearing loss (n = 150), and group B, with normal hearing (n = 300). Group A showed a significantly lower gestation age at birth (p = 0.005) compared to group B (32.5 ± 2.6 vs. 34.4 ± 3.5 weeks). In group A, the cochleopalpebral reflex's sensitivity was 80% using the wooden rattle. In group B, the specificity was 98%. CONCLUSIONS: The NICU discharged newborns' clinical hearing evaluation is not enough to exclude hearing loss. Although it may be the only diagnostic tool for hearing loss in some settings, its limitations should be considered.

Changes in tonal audiometry in children with progressive sensorineural hearing loss and history of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit discharge. A 20 year long-term follow-up.

OBJECTIVE: Newborns from Neonatal intensive care units (NICU) are at high-risk for sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) a follow-up is needed for early diagnosis and intervention. Our objective here was to describe the features and changes of SNHL at different periods during a follow-up of almost 20 years. METHODS: Risk factors for SNHL during development were analyzed. The audiological examination included: Brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEP), and Transient evoked otoacoustic emissions (TEOAE). At birth; tonal audiometry (between 125 and 8000 Hz), and tympanometry were performed at 5, 10, 15, and 20 years of age. RESULTS: Sixty-five percent of cases presented bilateral absence of BAEP. At 5 years of age, the most frequent SNHL level was severe (42.5%), followed by moderate (22.5%), and profound level (20%), in all cases, the SNHL was symmetrical with a predominance of lesion for the high frequencies. Exchange transfusion was associated with a higher degree of SNHL (OR = 6.00, CI = 1.11-32.28, p < 0.02). In 55%, SNHL remained stable, but in 40% of the cases it was progressive. At the end of the study six cases with moderate loss progressed to the severe level and seven cases with severe level progressed to profound. CONCLUSIONS: Forty percent of infants with SNHL discharged from NICU may present a progression in the hearing loss. Exchange transfusion was associated with a higher degree of SNHL. NICU graduates with SNHL merit a long-term audiological follow-up throughout their lifespan.

Hearing and neurological impairment in children with history of exchange transfusion for neonatal hyperbilirubinemia.

The objective was to determine frequency of sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL), identified by abnormal threshold in evoked potentials, absence of otoacoustic emissions and behavioral responses, auditory neuropathy (AN) (absence of evoked potentials, with preservation of otoacoustic emissions), and neurological comorbidity in infants with hyperbilirubinemia (HB) treated with exchange-transfusion (ET). From a total of 7,219 infants, ET was performed on 336 (4.6%). Inclusion criteria were fulfilled in 102; 234 children did not meet criteria (182 outside of the study period, 34 did not have complete audiological evaluation, and 18 rejected the followup). Thirty-five children (34%) were born at-term and 67 (66%) were preterm. Children had a mean age of 5.5 ± 3.9 years. Main causes of ET were Rh isoimmunization in 48 (47%), ABO incompatibility in 28 (27.5%), and multifactorial causes in 26 (25.5%). Fifteen (15%) children presented with SNHL. Preterm newborns presented more often with SNHL. Indirect bilirubin level was higher in children with SNHL (22.2 versus 18.7 mg/dL, P = 0.02). No cases of AN were documented. An increased risk of neurologic sequelae was observed in children with SNHL. In conclusion, we disclosed a high frequency of SNHL in children with neonatal HB and ET and neurological alterations. No cases of AN were observed.

Hearing loss, auditory neuropathy, and neurological co-morbidity in children with birthweight <750 g.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The current literature considers a birthweight <1,500 g as a risk factor for sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL, hearing threshold >25 decibels), auditory neuropathy (AN), and several neurological sequelae. The aim of the study was to determine the frequency and risk factors associated with SNHL, AN, and neurological morbidity in a group of children with birthweights of <750 g treated at a neonatal care unit and recruited into a long-term follow-up program. METHODS: A case-control study was carried out. Inclusion criteria were birthweight <750 g and born between the years 2000 and 2010. We performed brainstem auditory-evoked potentials (BAEP), evoked otoacoustic emissions (EOAE) and free-field audiometry (FFA) in this population. Neonatal variables and procedures were compared between children with SNHL and children with normal bilateral hearing (NBH). RESULTS: A total of 93 children with a mean age of 4 years were included in the follow-up. Six children (6.4%) had SNHL and 87 had NBH. We were unable to identify AN in the sample. Mean weight for this sample was 673 ± 68 g and gestational age 27.5 ± 2 weeks. Variables reflecting differences between groups included days under mechanical ventilation, furosemide treatment, and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. In the SNHL group, three patients had periventricular leukomalacia, two had hydrocephalus, and one patient had cerebral palsy. CONCLUSIONS: Frequency of SNHL in children with birthweights <750 g was higher than in other premature infants and was related with mechanical ventilation, furosemide application, and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Association with other neurological morbidities was frequent. Early diagnosis and intervention are required.

Risk factors associated with retinopathy of prematurity and visual alterations in infants with extremely low birth weight.

OBJECTIVE: Retinopathy of prematurity (RoP) is a retinal vascular disease and a frequent cause of blindness in infants. Our objective was to measure the frequency of RoP in infants with extremely low birth weight (ELBW, < 1,000 g) at the National Institute of Perinatology, Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU), weighing the association of RoP with several risk factors and their results, such as refractive errors and strabismus. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We carried out two cross-sectional observations of our prospective study: one near birth, and the second, after a long-term follow-up. Funduscopic examination was performed while the infants were in the NICU to detect RoP. Infants with RoP were followed up by means of visual examinations during an average 8-year period and results were compared with those of infants with ELBW without RoP. RESULTS: Of the 139 screened infants at the NICU, 24.4% were identified with RoP: 79% of these with grade I retinopathy; 18% with grade II, and one infant with grade III retinopathy. The zones involved were as follows: zone 1, 12%; zone 2, 79%, and zone 3, 9%. The following were associated with retinopathy: eclampsia (p = 0.003); gestational age (0.01); multiple gestation (0.03); days of stay at NICU (< 0.001); mechanical ventilation (0.001); hypoxia (0.01); oxygen therapy (< 0.001); apnea (0.005); acidosis (0.001), and hypercapnia (0.001). Retinopathy was self-limited in all children. We found no differences in frequency of refractive errors and strabismus between children with RoP and controls. CONCLUSIONS: We observed a moderately high frequency of RoP in infants with ELBW in Mexico City and recommended early mandatory screening for early intervention.

Cognitive performance of school children with unilateral sensorineural hearing loss.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Some studies have shown low school performance of children with early-onset unilateral sensorineural hearing loss (U-SNHL). We undertook this study to compare cognitive performance of school-children with perinatal U-SNHL with that of a group of bilateral normal hearing (BNH) children. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional observation from our prospective study that included children discharged from the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) who were followed to determine their hearing, language, and neurocognitive development. We performed audiometric studies and Stanford-Binet intelligence scale after Terman-Merrill version examinations. Statistical comparisons were carried out with Student t and chi(2) tests. We calculated U-SNHL-associated relative risk with a 95% confidence level. RESULTS: We followed 21 children with U-SNHL and 60 with BNH. Median age of both groups at the time of study was 7 years. Hearing loss severity ranged from severe to profound. Average number of days of stay at the NICU in the U-SNHL group was 26+/-4 days, whereas for the BNH group this was 8+/-2 days (p<0.001). U-SNHL-associated variables included hyperbilirubinemia, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, furosemide exposure, and hypoglycemia. Average and standard deviation of total and of both Terman-Merrill intelligence subscale coefficients were significantly lower in the U-SNHL group. CONCLUSIONS: Children with U-SNHL may present lower intelligence coefficients than children with BNH. It is important to observe whether this handicap continues throughout the child's lifetime and to ascertain whether there are certain factors associated with reversibility of disability.

Comparación del neurodesarrollo en neonatos de 27 a 34 semanas de edad gestacional nacidos en dos períodos en una institución de tercer nivel de atención / Comparative neurodevelopment in neonates of 27 at 34 weeks of gestational age in two different periods

Introducción. Un número creciente de publicaciones acerca de las condiciones de estos neonatos, sobre todo los de gestaciones extremadamente cortas (menos de 28 semanas), refieren secuelas mayores como parálisis cerebral, retardo mental, ceguera y sordera neurosensorial. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar en un grupo de neonatos de 27 a 34 semanas de edad gestacional el neurodesarrollo al año de vida en dos períodos. Material y métodos. Se incluyeron a neonatos entre 27 a 34 semanas de edad gestacional vivos seguidos durante su primer año de vida nacidos en dos períodos, el primero de 1987 a 1991 (n=154) y el segundo de 1992 a 1997 (n=724). A todos se les realizaron evaluaciones del neurodesarrollo. Resultados. La mortalidad para el primer período fue de 12 por ciento y para el segundo de 6 por ciento. Enfermedades como neumonía, membrana hialina y alteraciones metabólicas presentaron un aumento de riesgo (Rm) para el grupo 1 (Rm 2.1, 1.4, 1.7 respectivamente); sin embargo, el riesgo fue mayor para grupos para la exploración neurológica. Sin embargo para la audición (alteraciones grave) el riesgo fue mayor para el primer grupo (Rm 3.9), así como también para el lenguaje secundario audiógeno (Rm 3.8). Conclusión. Existió disminución substancial en la mortalidad de un período a otro. No se observaron diferencias entre los grupos para la valoración neurológica; sin embargo, fue evidente la disminución de las alteraciones de la audición y el lenguaje para el segundo período

Neurodesarrollo a los 3 años de vida en neonatos sometidos a ventilación mecánica / Neurodevelopment at the age of three in neonates subjected to mechanical ventilation

Introducción. Una de las principales preocupaciones de las Unidades de Cuidades Intensivos Neonatales es la calidad de vida de sus egresados, en varios estudios se reporta un aumento significativo en la supervivencia de los mismos en los últimos 12 años. La ventilación mecánica convencional, procedimiento habitual en estos neonatos, se ha asociado en varios trabajos a alteraciones del desarrollo en general. Material y métodos. Se estudiaron en forma retrospectiva a un grupo de neonatos nacidos en el período de enero de 1991 a enero de 1993 sometidos a ventilación mandatoria intermitente desde su nacimiento hasta un mínimo de 3 días, encontrándose todos dentro del Programa de seguimiento Pediátrico y con valoraciones: neurológica, psicológica, motora, auditiva, de lenguaje y oftalmológica. Resultados. Ciento noventa y siete pacientes reunieron los criterios de inclusión. El resultado global de la valoración neurológica mostró un predominio de niños normales del 59 por ciento, con alteraciones moderadas del 16 por ciento y graves del 9 por ciento. Las alteraciones psicológicas fueron del 33 por ciento, de acuerdo al coeficiente intelectual (IQ) el 66 por ciento se encontró igual o mayor al promedio. La audición mostró 59 por ciento de normalidad, con alteraciones entre graves y profundas del 19 por ciento. La valoración del lenguaje presentó un porcentaje alto de afectados del 51 por ciento; sin embargo, sólo 22 por ciento tenía alteraciones graves en relación directa con la pérdida auditiva mencionada. En la valoración oftalmológica se encontró una proporción de 0.81 de pacientes sanos. Conclusiones. La interpretación a la asociación de la ventilalción mecánica, variables neonatales y desarrollo posterior sólo pueden ser parciales ya que el conocimiento y el manejo de todas las variables implícitas en este complejo proceso es sumamente difícil