Pilot randomized trial of selective internal radiation therapy vs. chemoembolization in unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: To compare selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT) with transarterial chemoembolization (TACE), the standard-of-care for intermediate-stage unresectable, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), as first-line treatment. METHODS: SIRTACE was an open-label multicenter randomized-controlled pilot study, which prospectively compared primarily safety and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) changes following TACE and SIRT. Patients with unresectable HCC, Child-Pugh ≤B7, ECOG performance status ≤2 and ≤5 liver lesions (≤20 cm total maximum diameter) without extrahepatic spread were randomized to receive either TACE (at 6-weekly intervals until tumour enhancement was not observed on MRI or disease progression) or single-session SIRT (yttrium-90 resin microspheres). RESULTS: Twenty-eight patients with BCLC stage A (32.1%), B (46.4%) or C (21.4%) received either a mean of 3.4 (median 2) TACE interventions (N = 15) or single SIRT (N = 13). Both treatments were well tolerated. Despite SIRT patients having significantly worse physical functioning at baseline, at week-12, neither treatment had a significantly different impact on HRQoL as measured by Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Hepatobiliary total or its subscales. Both TACE and SIRT were effective for the local control of liver tumours. Best overall response-rate (RECIST 1.0) of target lesions were 13.3% and 30.8%, disease control rates were 73.3% and 76.9% for TACE and SIRT, respectively. Two patients in each group were down-staged for liver transplantation (N = 3) or radiofrequency ablation (N = 1). CONCLUSIONS: Single-session SIRT appeared to be as safe and had a similar impact on HRQoL as multiple sessions of TACE, suggesting that SIRT might be an alternative option for patients eligible for TACE.

Diagnosis and management of extensive vascular malformations of the lower limb: part I. Clinical diagnosis.

There is significant confusion in the literature when describing vascular anomalies, and vascular malformations are often misnamed or incorrectly classified. Part I of this two-part series on the diagnosis and management of extensive vascular malformations of the lower limbs will discuss the dermatologist's role in the diagnosis of these lesions. At least nine types of vascular malformations with specific clinical and radiologic characteristics must be distinguished in the lower limbs: Klippel-Trénaunay syndrome, port-wine stain with or without hypertrophy, cutis marmorata telangiectatica congenita, macrocephaly-capillary malformation, Parkes Weber syndrome, Stewart-Bluefarb syndrome, venous malformation, glomuvenous malformation, and lymphatic malformation. This article highlights the differences in clinical appearance and discusses the differential diagnosis of extensive vascular malformations in an attempt to ensure earlier diagnosis and better outcomes for these patients.

Diagnosis and management of extensive vascular malformations of the lower limb: part II. Systemic repercussions [corrected], diagnosis, and treatment.

At least nine types of vascular malformations with specific clinical and radiologic characteristics must be distinguished in the lower limbs: Klippel-Trénaunay syndrome, port-wine stain with or without hypertrophy, cutis marmorata telangiectatica congenita, macrocephaly-capillary malformation, Parkes Weber syndrome, Stewart-Bluefarb syndrome, venous malformation, glomuvenous malformation, and lymphatic malformation. Extensive vascular malformations are often more complex than they appear and require a multidisciplinary therapeutic approach. Vascular malformations may be associated with underlying disease or systemic anomalies. Part II of this two-part series on the diagnosis and management of extensive vascular malformations of the lower limb highlights the systemic repercussions [corrected] (bone, articular, visceral, and hematologic involvement), diagnosis, and treatment of these lesions.

Prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in relation to treatment across BCLC stages.

BACKGROUND: The Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC) staging system recommends first-line therapy for each tumor stage. We evaluated the effect of compliance with BCLC treatment allocation on the prognosis of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed 359 consecutive, newly diagnosed HCC patients treated in our Liver Unit during a 14-year period. For each stage, survival was compared according to whether treatment matched the BCLC recommendation. We also compared the survival of patients in the same BCLC stage who received different treatments, and patients in different BCLC stages receiving the same treatment. RESULTS: BCLC-A patients treated with radical therapies (66%) survived longer (117 vs. 20 months; p < 0.001) than patients (33%) who received locoregional or systemic therapies. Survival of BCLC-B patients treated with locoregional treatments (57%) was shorter (24 vs. 71 months; p < 0.001) than that of patients receiving radical therapies (32%). BCLC-C patients treated with systemic therapy or supportive care survived shorter (6 vs. 11 months; p = 0.003) than those receiving locoregional therapies (39%). Survival of BCLC-D patients receiving systemic therapies or supportive care was significantly lower than that of patients treated by liver transplantation (5 vs. 137 months; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In addition to BCLC stage, actual treatment determines survival in patients with HCC.

Radioembolization with use of yttrium-90 resin microspheres in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and portal vein thrombosis.

PURPOSE: Intraarterial delivery of yttrium-90 ((90)Y)-bound microspheres (ie, radioembolization) is a promising treatment for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). An early concern was the "embolic" nature of the microspheres, and their potential to reduce hepatic arterial blood flow in patients with compromised portal blood flow secondary to portal vein thrombosis/occlusion (PVT). In this situation, the risk of liver failure could be enhanced, particularly in patients with cirrhosis who have increased hepatic arterial blood flow. This retrospective analysis was undertaken to assess the safety and clinical benefits of radioembolization with (90)Y resin microspheres in HCC with branch or main PVT. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 25 patients presenting with unresectable HCC and compromised portal flow received segmental, lobar, or whole-liver infusion of (90)Y resin microspheres. For the analysis of tumor response, changes in target lesions, appearance of new lesions, and changes in portal vein thrombus were studied. Controlled disease was defined by absence of progression in all these components. RESULTS: Globally, controlled disease was achieved in 66.7% of patients at 2 months and 50% of patients at 6 months. No significant changes were observed in liver-related toxicities according to Common Toxicity Criteria (version 3.0) at 1 and 2 months after treatment. Median survival time was 10 months (95% CI, 6.6-13.3 months). CONCLUSIONS: Radioembolization of unresectable HCC and branch or main PVT with (90)Y resin microspheres was associated with minimal toxicity and a favorable median survival time. Further prospective studies are warranted to validate the findings in this clinically challenging patient population.

Analysis of prognostic factors after yttrium-90 radioembolization of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma.

PURPOSE: To analyze which patient-, tumor-, and treatment-related factors may influence outcome after (90)Y radioembolization ((90)Y-RE) for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). PATIENTS AND METHODS: Seventy-two consecutive patients with advanced HCC treated with (90)Y-RE were studied to detect which factors may have influenced response to treatment and survival. RESULTS: Median overall survival was 13 months (95% confidence interval, 9.6-16.3 months). In univariate analysis, survival was significantly better in patients with one to five lesions (19 vs. 8 months, p = 0.001) and in patients with alpha-fetoprotein <52 UI/mL (24 vs. 11 months, p = 0.002). The variation in target tumor size and the appearance of new lesions were analyzed among 50 patients with measurable tumors. A decrease in target tumor size was observed in most patients, and the intensity of such decrease was not associated with any of the factors under study. Patients who developed new lesions in the treated liver (and also in the nontargeted liver) at month 3 more frequently had more than five nodules, bilobar disease, and alpha-fetoprotein >52 UI/mL, and their survival in the multivariate analysis was significantly worse (hazard ratio, 4.7; 95% confidence interval, 13-1.73) (p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Yttrium-90 radioembolization results in control of target lesions in the majority of patients with HCC but does not prevent the development of new lesions. Survival of patients treated with (90)Y-RE seems to depend largely on factors related to the aggressiveness of the disease (number of nodules, levels of alpha-fetoprotein, and presence of microscopic disease).

Efficacy and safety of microfoam sclerotherapy in a patient with Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome and a patent foramen ovale.

BACKGROUND: Sclerotherapy with polidocanol microfoam injection under duplex guidance is a new treatment for venous malformations associated with Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome. Multidetector-row computed tomography (MDCT) venography is extremely helpful in the assessment of disease extension and the planning of therapy. Observation In this particular case, MDCT venography demonstrated the origin, course, and relationship to adjacent anatomical structures of aberrant vessels that configure the superficial venous system with an anatomically normal and patent deep venous system. At the end of the treatment, which consisted of 8 sessions of microfoam sclerotherapy within 12 months, a considerable reduction in the number and size of the percutaneously treated aberrant veins was observed. The obvious clinical improvement was objectively demonstrated with MDCT venography, which showed clear reduction in the number and size of treated veins. Further clinical investigation performed because of isolated migraine episodes related to the sclerotherapy session revealed that the patient had a patent foramen ovale. A transcranial Doppler examination during the procedure showed middle cerebral artery bubbles, which indicated right-to-left shunt. No cerebral damage was observed in a subsequent diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance examination. CONCLUSIONS: Microfoam sclerotherapy is an effective treatment option in patients with Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome. MDCT venography allows diagnosis of the disease, planning of therapy, and assessment of response to treatment. Although foam-induced microembolism is a common phenomenon during sclerotherapy, in this report we demonstrate that polidocanol microfoam prepared with a low-nitrogen gas mixture is safe in a patient with a patent foramen ovale.

Foot or hand malformations related to deep venous system anomalies of the lower limb in Klippel-Trénaunay syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Klippel-Trénaunay syndrome (KTS) is a capillary-lymphatic-venous malformation associated with soft tissue and skeletal hypertrophy of one or more limbs. Deep venous system (DVS) anomalies are reported to be present in 8% to 18% of patients with KTS; approximately 25% of patients with KTS have hand or foot malformations. OBJECTIVE: We sought to assess whether the presence of hand or foot malformations in KTS is a predictor of DVS anomalies. METHODS: Retrospective data were collected from 51 consecutive patients with KTS seen in a university hospital between January 2000 and February 2008. Patients with possible Proteus syndrome were not included. The presence and patency of the DVS was studied using conventional venography, multidetector computed tomography, or fast 3-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging venography. RESULTS: Seventeen hand or foot malformations were present in 9 patients, consisting of: toe macrodactyly in 5 patients (two bilateral and one with plantar expansion); toe microdactyly in one patient; finger macrodactyly in one patient; finger macrodactyly and ectrodactyly in one patient; syndactyly in 4 patients; and clinodactyly with camptodactyly of the hand of one patient with lower limb KTS. Eleven patients had DVS anomalies (one with aplasia of entire DVS; one with duplication of the superficial femoral vein; 7 with hypoplasia of femoral vein; and 7 with aplasia of the popliteal vein). All patients with hand or foot malformations also had DVS anomalies (P < .001). LIMITATIONS: Small sample size was a limitation. CONCLUSION: The presence of hand or foot malformations in KTS may predict the presence of DVS anomalies.

Treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma by radioembolization using 90Y microspheres.

The use of external beam radiation therapy for primary treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has been limited by the low radiation tolerance of the non-tumoral liver. However, technical advances allowing partial liver volume external irradiation have resulted in consistently high response rates. Internal radiation therapy, also called (90)Y radioembolization ((90)Y-RE), consists in delivering implantable microspheres labeled with (90)Y into the arteries that feed liver tumors in order to provide a high dose of radiation to tumor nodules irrespective of their number, size and location, while preserving the non-tumoral liver tissue from receiving a harmful level of radiation. Among patients with HCC, (90)Y-RE is used for those that have a preserved liver function and unresectable tumors that cannot be treated with percutaneous ablation. Although (90)Y-RE is by and large well tolerated, it may produce relevant toxic effects as a result of radiation of non-target organs including cholecystitis, gastrointestinal ulceration, pneumonitis, and most importantly, liver toxicity. A significant effect on tumor growth in the treated lesions is consistently observed with disease control rates in excess of 80%. Also, (90)Y-RE may allow downstaging large or multiple lesions to radical treatments with curative intent. When compared with the survival of HCC patients in advanced stage either not treated or treated with ineffective systemic agents, survival after (90)Y-RE is encouraging and warrants future clinical trials. Clinical research in combining the cytotoxic effect of (90)Y with the cytostatic mechanism of targeted therapies is currently in progress and will provide valuable safety and toxicity data that may translate into improved clinical outcome and overall survival.

A retrospective comparative analysis of the effect of Y90-radioembolization on the survival of patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: to determine the impact of Y90-Radioembolization on survival when used as a first-line treatment for unresectable HCC. METHODOLOGY: We retrospectively analyzed 35 consecutive patients with unresectable HCC who received 90Y-labeled resin microspheres as first-line treatment and compared their overall survival from the time of diagnosis with that of a cohort of 43 patients with unresectable HCC that were potential candidates for Y90-Radioembolization but had received conventional care due to unavailability or technical contraindications. Patients in both groups had a similar liver function and tumor burden. RESULTS: Median survival from diagnosis was significantly higher in the radioembolization group compared with controls (16 vs. 8 months; p < 0.05), even after adjusting for cirrhosis, multinodular disease, bilobar involvement or vascular invasion. In a multivariate analysis, treatment by radioembolization was the only prognostic factor independently associated with improved survival. In an intention-to-treat analysis, patients evaluated for radioembolization (finally treated or not) survived longer than controls (13 vs. 10 months; p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Y90-Radioembolization is likely to improve survival among patients with unresectable HCC compared with conventional treatment. Further prospective studies are needed to evaluate the potential of this new treatment modality in unresectable HCC.

Liver disease induced by radioembolization of liver tumors: description and possible risk factors.

BACKGROUND: To the authors' knowledge, liver damage after liver radioembolization with yttrium90-labeled microspheres has never been studied specifically. METHODS: Using a complete set of data recorded prospectively among all patients without previous chronic liver disease treated by radioembolization at the authors' institution from September 2003 to July 2006, patterns of liver damage were identified and possible risk factors were analyzed. RESULTS: In all, 20% of patients developed a distinct clinical picture that appeared 4 to 8 weeks after treatment and was characterized by jaundice and ascites. Veno-occlusive disease was the histologic hallmark observed in the most severe cases. This form of sinusoidal obstruction syndrome was not observed among patients who never received chemotherapy or in those in whom a single hepatic lobe was treated. Relevant to treatment planning, a possible risk factor was a higher treatment dose in relation to the targeted liver volume. A transjugular intrahepatic stent shunt improved liver function in 2 patients with impending liver failure, although 1 of them eventually died from it. CONCLUSIONS: Radioembolization of liver tumors, particularly after antineoplastic chemotherapy, may result in an uncommon but potentially life-threatening form of hepatic sinusoidal obstruction syndrome that presents clinically with jaundice and ascites.

In vivo evaluation of a new embolic spherical particle (HepaSphere) in a kidney animal model.

HepaSphere is a new spherical embolic material developed in a dry state that absorbs fluids and adapts to the vessel wall, leaving no space between the particle and the arterial wall. The aim of this study was to elucidate the final in vivo size, deformation, final location, and main properties of the particles when reconstituted with two different contrast media (Iodixanol and Ioxaglate) in an animal model. Two sizes of "dry-state" particles (50-100 and 150-200 microm) were reconstituted using both ionic and nonionic contrast media. The mixture was used to partly embolize both kidneys in an animal model (14 pigs). The animals were sacrificed 4 weeks after the procedure and the samples processed. The final size of the particles was 230.2 +/- 62.5 microm for the 50- to 100-microm dry-state particles and 314.4 +/- 71 microm for the 150- to 200-microm dry-state particles. When the contrast medium (ionic versus nonionic) used for the reconstitution was studied to compare (Student's t-test) the final size of the particles, no differences were found (p > 0.05). The mean in vivo deformation for HepaSphere was 17.1% +/- 12.3%. No differences (p > 0.05) were found in the deformation of the particle regarding the dry-state size or the contrast medium (Mann-Whitney test). We conclude that HepaSphere is stable, occludes perfectly, and morphologically adapts to the vessel lumen of the arteries embolized. There is no recanalization of the arteries 4 weeks after embolization. Its final in vivo size is predictable and the particle has the same properties in terms of size and deformation with the two different contrast media (Iodixanol and Ioxaglate).

Delirium due to brain microembolism: diagnostic value of diffusion-weighted MRI.

Delirum is a common complication in hospitalized patients and it is characterized by acute disturbances of consciousness, attention, cognition, and perception. Despite the frequency with which it is observed, ischemic stroke is generally considered as an unusual cause of delirium. A subtype of brain embolism is characterized by multiple small emboli in different vascular territories, a condition known as "brain microembolism." Given the high contrast of acute ischemic lesions in diffusion weighted imaging (DWI) this technique is particularly helpful to detect these small infarctions. We present here a patient with pulmonary metastases who was treated with bronchial artery embolization and who subsequently developed delirium due to brain microembolism. The embolic material crossed through pulmonary arteriovenous fistulas, producing multiple areas of cerebral ischemia. The ischemic lesions could be visualized only on DWI, and they affected the periventricular region, caudate nucleus, thalamus, and cerebellum.

Right gastric artery embolization prior to treatment with yttrium-90 microspheres.

PURPOSE: Intra-arterial infusion of yttrium-90 microspheres is a form of radiation treatment for unresectable hepatic neoplasms. Misdeposition of particles in the gastroduodenal area such as the right gastric artery (RGA) may occur with serious consequences. We present a series of patients who underwent a detailed vascular study followed by RGA embolization. Special emphasis is placed on anatomic variations and technical considerations. METHODS: In a 1 year period, 27 patients were treated. Initial vascular evaluation was performed, with careful attention to anatomic variants or extrahepatic arterial supply, especially to the gastroduodenal area. Embolization of such arteries was planned if needed. RGA embolization was performed antegradely from the hepatic artery or retrogradely via the left gastric artery (LGA). Postprocedural follow-up included clinical interview and gastroscopy if necessary. RESULTS: RGA embolization was performed in 9 patients presenting with primary (n = 3) or metastatic liver tumors (n = 6). Six patients underwent antegrade RGA embolization and 3 had embolization done retrogradely via the LGA. Retrograde access was chosen for anatomic reasons. None of the patients complained of gastroduodenal symptoms. CONCLUSION: RGA embolization can help minimize the gastroduodenal deposition of radioactive particles. RGA embolization should routinely be carried out. The procedure can be performed, with similar technical success, by both anterograde and retrograde approaches.

New techniques for the evaluation and therapeutic planning of patients with Klippel-Trénaunay syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Klippel-Trénaunay syndrome (KTS) is a well-known eponym for a capillary-lymphatic-venous malformation which is associated with soft tissue and skeletal hypertrophy, usually of one or more limbs. Plain films, sonograms, conventional venograms, and arteriograms have been employed for the evaluation of the disease. OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate the usefulness of multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) and fast 3-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging (3D-MR) venography for the assessment and therapeutic planning of patients with KTS. METHODS: A prospective study in 16 consecutive patients with KTS using MDCT and 3D-MR venography, performed between January 2004 and January 2006 in a university hospital in Pamplona, Spain. RESULTS: In nearly all patients, persistent embryologic veins were observed, and in one subject aplasia/atresia of the whole deep venous system of the affected extremity was seen. In four individuals hypoplasia of the femoral vein was observed; one subject had duplication of the femoral vein, and in three patients aplasia/atresia of this vein was found. Only half of the patients had normal popliteal veins. In one patient, aneurysmal dilatation of the popliteal vein was detected, and in six subjects, aplasia of this vein was observed. The presence of geographic stains was suggestive of hypoplasia and/or aplasia of femoral and popliteal veins. LIMITATIONS: The small size of the group of patients with KTS, which is related to low incidence of the disease. CONCLUSIONS: MDCT and 3D-MR venography are extremely helpful for the global evaluation of patients with KTS. Information regarding soft tissue and bony anatomy as well as information about superficial and deep venous systems may be obtained with a single exam.

Radioembolization using 90Y-resin microspheres for patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma.

PURPOSE: To investigate the antitumor effect of resin microspheres loaded with 90-yttrium against hepatocellular carcinoma and their safety in the setting of liver cirrhosis. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Data from 24 consecutive patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) treated by radioembolization in the period from September 2003 to February 2005 were reviewed. Patients received no further antineoplastic therapy. A comprehensive evaluation was performed to prevent the risk of damage due to microsphere misplacing. Patients were discharged the day after microspheres injection. RESULTS: Serious liver toxicity observed among cirrhotic patients in a first period was subsequently prevented by modifying the selection criteria and the method for calculating the activity to be administered. Among 21 patients evaluable for response using Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (RECIST) criteria, a reduction in size of target lesions was observed in all but 1 patient. When considering only target lesions, disease control rate and response rate were 100% and 23.8%, respectively. However, 43% of patients progressed in the liver in the form of new lesions appearing a median time of 3 months after radioembolization. CONCLUSION: Our experience in these series of patients indicates that radioembolization using resin microspheres has a significant antitumor effect against HCC and that using stringent selection criteria and conservative models for calculating the radiation activity to be administered, radioembolization can be performed safely even in cirrhotic patients.

Complications of embolization.

Embolization is a remarkably versatile procedure used in nearly all vascular and nonvascular systems to treat a wide range of pathology. The published literature is rich with studies demonstrating the enormous therapeutic potential offered by embolization procedures, and the possibilities continue to expand with the advent of new embolization agents and techniques. Unfortunately, with this variety and innovation comes a wide spectrum of potential complications, not always easy to classify and summarize, associated with embolization. This article reviews the procedures and associated complications of arterial and venous embolization procedures, organized by vascular distribution.

Treatment of ureteroarterial fistulae with covered vascular endoprostheses and ureteral occlusion.

BACKGROUND: Ureteroarterial fistulae (UAFs) are a rare entity, often difficult to identify, and associated with a high mortality rate. This fact has been attributed to a delay in diagnosis and treatment. Five conditions that can predispose to the development of this uncommon entity have been described: prior pelvic surgery, prolonged ureteral stenting, radiation therapy, previous vascular surgery and vascular pathology. METHODS: We present 4 patients with UAFs and at least three of the above-mentioned conditions. Ureteral ischemia and subsequent necrosis promote the formation of these fistulae. The constant pulsation of the iliac artery is transmitted to an already compromised ureter containing a stiff intraluminal foreign body, resulting in pressure necrosis, most likely where the ureter crosses the iliac artery. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Cases were managed percutaneously with a combination of the deployment of a covered prosthesis and, when needed, with mechanical occlusion of the ureter. Hematuria stopped in all the patients with no evidence of immediate rebleeding. One patient presented a new episode of vaginal bleeding 13 months after endograft placement and ureteral embolization. Arteriography showed the presence of a hypogastric artery pseudoaneurysm that was occluded using coils. No new bleeding has occurred in this patient 12 months after the second embolization. At present all 4 patients are alive with follow-up periods of 5, 9, 11 and 25 months since the first procedure.

Tratamiento percutáneo retrógrado de las estenosis biliares benignas en pacientes con hepatoyeyunostomía / Retrograde percutaneous treatment of benign biliary stenosis in patients with hepatojejunostomy

Objetivo: Aportar nuestra experiencia en la utilización de la vía percutánea retrógrada o transyeyunal como acceso a la vía biliar en pacientes con hepato o coledocoyeyunostomía. Material y método: Presentamos a seis pacientes en los que se utilizó la vía percutánea retrógrada con distintas finalidades: en seis casos para la dilatación de estenosis biliares (cuatro pacientes con estenosis de la anastomosis bilioentérica, un paciente presentaba múltiples estenosis del árbol biliar y uno una estenosis del colédoco distal y de la papila), en tres casos para extraer colelitiasis intrahepáticas y extrahepáticas, en otro para extraer un tubo tutor migrado fuera de la hepatoyeyunostomía al asa yeyunal y, por último, en un caso se utilizó para tratar una fuga biliar en la anastomosis bilioentérica. Además, describimos los detalles técnicos del procedimiento. Resultados: El tratamiento dilatador se realizó con éxito en todos los pacientes, requiriendo una media de dos sesiones. No hubo complicaciones inmediatas excepto un caso de hemofilia. Los pacientes llevaron colocados los tubos de drenaje transhepáticos durante un período de entre 12-30 días, mientras que el tiempo de los tubos transyeyunales fue de 22 días y cuatro meses. Conclusiones: El acceso percutáneo retrógrado es una vía de abordaje al árbol biliar alternativa y complementaria a la transhepática. Las principales ventajas de este procedimiento respecto al anterógrado son el acceso sencillo a los conductos biliares, tanto derechos como izquierdos, el menor riesgo de complicaciones y la menor severidad de éstas, y la posibilidad de realizar el seguimiento de los drenajes de forma ambulatoria (AU)