Description of the last-instar larva of Zenithoptera lanei Santos, 1941 (Odonata: Libellulidae).

The larva of Zenithoptera lanei Santos, 1941 is described and illustrated based on three exuviae of reared larvae collected in Misiones, Argentina, Roraima and Amazonas, Brazil. A comparison with the larva of Z. anceps Pujol-Luz, 1993 is included.

Eight Million Years of Satellite DNA Evolution in Grasshoppers of the Genus Schistocerca Illuminate the Ins and Outs of the Library Hypothesis.

Satellite DNA (satDNA) is an abundant class of tandemly repeated noncoding sequences, showing high rate of change in sequence, abundance, and physical location. However, the mechanisms promoting these changes are still controversial. The library model was put forward to explain the conservation of some satDNAs for long periods, predicting that related species share a common collection of satDNAs, which mostly experience quantitative changes. Here, we tested the library model by analyzing three satDNAs in ten species of Schistocerca grasshoppers. This group represents a valuable material because it diversified during the last 7.9 Myr across the American continent from the African desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria), and this thus illuminates the direction of evolutionary changes. By combining bioinformatic and cytogenetic, we tested whether these three satDNA families found in S. gregaria are also present in nine American species, and whether differential gains and/or losses have occurred in the lineages. We found that the three satDNAs are present in all species but display remarkable interspecies differences in their abundance and sequences while being highly consistent with genus phylogeny. The number of chromosomal loci where satDNA is present was also consistent with phylogeny for two satDNA families but not for the other. Our results suggest eminently chance events for satDNA evolution. Several evolutionary trends clearly imply either massive amplifications or contractions, thus closely fitting the library model prediction that changes are mostly quantitative. Finally, we found that satDNA amplifications or contractions may influence the evolution of monomer consensus sequences and by chance playing a major role in driftlike dynamics.

How dynamic could be the 45S rDNA cistron? An intriguing variability in a grasshopper species revealed by integration of chromosomal and genomic data.

To better understand the structure and variability of the 45S rDNA cistron and its evolutionary dynamics in grasshoppers, we performed a detailed analysis combining classical and molecular cytogenetic data with whole-genome sequencing in Abracris flavolienata, which shows extraordinary variability in the chromosomal distribution for this element. We found astonishing variability in the number and size of rDNA clusters at intra- and inter-population levels. Interestingly, FISH using distinct parts of 45S rDNA cistron (18S rDNA, 28S rDNA, and ITS1) as probes revealed a distinct number of clusters, suggesting independent mobility and amplification of the 45S rDNA components. This hypothesis is consistent with the higher genomic coverage of almost the entire cistron of 45S rDNA observed in A. flavolineata compared to other grasshoppers, besides coverage variability along the 45S rDNA cistron in the species. In addition, these differences in coverage for distinct components of the 45S rDNA cistron indicate emergence of pseudogenes evidenced by existence of truncated sequences, demonstrating the rDNA dynamics in the species. Although the chromosomal distribution of 18S rDNA was highly variable, the chromosomes 1, 3, 6, and 9 harbored rDNA clusters in all individuals with the occurrence of NOR activity in pair 9, suggesting ancestry or selective pressures to prevent pseudogenization of rDNA sequences in this chromosome pair. Additionally, small NORs and cryptic rDNA loci were observed. Finally, there was no evidence of enrichment and association of transposable elements, at least, inside or nearby rDNA cistron. These findings broaden our knowledge of rDNA dynamics, revealing an independent movement and amplification of segments of 45S rDNA cistron, which in A. flavolineata could be attributed to ectopic recombination.

Uncovering the evolutionary history of neo-XY sex chromosomes in the grasshopper Ronderosia bergii (Orthoptera, Melanoplinae) through satellite DNA analysis.

BACKGROUND: Neo-sex chromosome systems arose independently multiple times in evolution, presenting the remarkable characteristic of repetitive DNAs accumulation. Among grasshoppers, occurrence of neo-XY was repeatedly noticed in Melanoplinae. Here we analyzed the most abundant tandem repeats of R. bergii (2n = 22, neo-XY♂) using deep Illumina sequencing and graph-based clustering in order to address the neo-sex chromosomes evolution. RESULTS: The analyses revealed ten families of satDNAs comprising about ~1% of the male genome, which occupied mainly C-positive regions of autosomes. Regarding the sex chromosomes, satDNAs were recorded within centromeric or interstitial regions of the neo-X chromosome and four satDNAs occurred in the neo-Y, two of them being exclusive (Rber248 and Rber299). Using a combination of probes we uncovered five well-defined cytological variants for neo-Y, originated by multiple paracentric inversions and satDNA amplification, besides fragmented neo-Y. These neo-Y variants were distinct in frequency between embryos and adult males. CONCLUSIONS: The genomic data together with cytogenetic mapping enabled us to better understand the neo-sex chromosome dynamics in grasshoppers, reinforcing differentiation of neo-X and neo-Y and revealing the occurrence of multiple additional rearrangements involved in the neo-Y evolution of R. bergii. We discussed the possible causes that led to differences in frequency for the neo-Y variants between embryos and adults. Finally we hypothesize about the role of DNA satellites in R. bergii as well as putative historical events involved in the evolution of the R. bergii neo-XY.

Phylogeny and chromosomal diversification in the Dichroplus elongatus species group (Orthoptera, Melanoplinae).

In an attempt to track the chromosomal differentiation in the Dichroplus elongatus species group, we analyzed the karyotypes of four species with classical cytogenetic and mapping several multigene families through fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). We improved the taxon sampling of the D. elongatus species group adding new molecular data to infer the phylogeny of the genus and reconstruct the karyotype evolution. Our molecular analyses recovered a fully resolved tree with no evidence for the monophyly of Dichroplus. However, we recovered several stable clades within the genus, including the D. elongatus species group, under the different strategies of tree analyses (Maximum Parsimony and Maximum Likelihood). The chromosomal data revealed minor variation in the D. elongatus species group's karyotypes caused by chromosome rearrangements compared to the phylogenetically related D. maculipennis species group. The karyotypes of D. intermedius and D. exilis described herein showed the standard characteristics found in most Dichroplini, 2n = 23/24, X0♂ XX♀, Fundamental number (FN) = 23/24. However, we noticed two established pericentric inversions in D. intermedius karyotype, raising the FN to 27♂/28♀. A strong variation in the heterochromatic blocks distribution was evidenced at interespecific level. The multigene families' mapping revealed significant variation, mainly in rDNA clusters. These variations are probably caused by micro chromosomal changes, such as movement of transposable elements (TEs) and ectopic recombination. These observations suggest a high genomic dynamism for these repetitive DNA sequences in related species. The reconstruction of the chromosome character "variation in the FN" posits the FN = 23/24 as the ancestral state, and it is hypothesized that variations due to pericentric inversions has arisen independently three times in the evolutionary history of Dichroplus. One of these independent events occurred in the D. elongatus species group, where D. intermedius is the unique case with the highest FN described in the tribe Dichroplini.

Neo-sex Chromosomes in the Maculipennis Species Group (Dichroplus: Acrididae, Melanoplinae): The Cases of D. maculipennis and D. vittigerum.

South American melanopline grasshoppers display a disproportionate number of derived karyotypes, including many cases of neo-sex chromosome systems. This is especially true of the genus Dichroplus and its Maculipennis species group. We analyzed the karyotype and neo-sex chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis of Dichroplus maculipennis and D. vittigerum from Argentina using conventional and fluorescent cytogenetic protocols in order to elucidate the behavior and origin of these neo-XY systems in relation to the current phylogeny of this group. Our results showed that D. maculipennis (2n = 22♂/22♀; neoXY/neoXX) and D. vittigerum, whose karyotype is described here for the first time (2n = 18♂/18♀; neoXY/neoXX), show highly evolved neo-XY systems, although with significant differences between them. Furthermore, both species differ for two autosomal fixed Robertsonian fusions present in D. vittigerum. Analysis of karyotypic character state optimization strongly suggests the independent origin and evolution of neo-sex systems within this species group.

FISH-mapping of the 5S rDNA locus in chili peppers (Capsicum-Solanaceae).

We present here the physical mapping of the 5S rDNA locus in six wild and five cultivated taxa of Capsicum by means of a genus-specific FISH probe. In all taxa, a single 5S locus per haploid genome that persistently mapped onto the short arm of a unique metacentric chromosome pair at intercalar position, was found. 5S FISH signals of almost the same size and brightness intensity were observed in all the analyzed taxa. This is the first cytological characterization of the 5S in wild taxa of Capsicum by using a genus-derived probe, and the most exhaustive and comprehensive in the chili peppers up to now. The information provided here will aid the cytomolecular characterization of pepper germplasm to evaluate variability and can be instrumental to integrate physical, genetic and genomic maps already generated in the genus.

Exploring the genes of yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.) by NGS and de novo transcriptome assembly.

Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.) is an important subtropical tree crop cultivated on 326,000 ha in Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay, with a total yield production of more than 1,000,000 t. Yerba mate presents a strong limitation regarding sequence information. The NCBI GenBank lacks an EST database of yerba mate and depicts only 80 DNA sequences, mostly uncharacterized. In this scenario, in order to elucidate the yerba mate gene landscape by means of NGS, we explored and discovered a vast collection of I. paraguariensis transcripts. Total RNA from I. paraguariensis was sequenced by Illumina HiSeq-2000 obtaining 72,031,388 pair-end 100 bp sequences. High quality reads were de novo assembled into 44,907 transcripts encompassing 40 million bases with an estimated coverage of 180X. Multiple sequence analysis allowed us to predict that yerba mate contains ∼ 32,355 genes and 12,551 gene variants or isoforms. We identified and categorized members of more than 100 metabolic pathways. Overall, we have identified ∼ 1,000 putative transcription factors, genes involved in heat and oxidative stress, pathogen response, as well as disease resistance and hormone response. We have also identified, based in sequence homology searches, novel transcripts related to osmotic, drought, salinity and cold stress, senescence and early flowering. We have also pinpointed several members of the gene silencing pathway, and characterized the silencing effector Argonaute1. We predicted a diverse supply of putative microRNA precursors involved in developmental processes. We present here the first draft of the transcribed genomes of the yerba mate chloroplast and mitochondrion. The putative sequence and predicted structure of the caffeine synthase of yerba mate is presented. Moreover, we provide a collection of over 10,800 SSR accessible to the scientific community interested in yerba mate genetic improvement. This contribution broadly expands the limited knowledge of yerba mate genes, and is presented as the first genomic resource of this important crop.

The complete genome of a putative endornavirus identified in yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil.).

We present the first report of a virus infecting the subtropical tree crop yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil.). Total RNA purification, followed by next-generation sequencing, transcripts assembly and annotation, resulted in the identification of a new endornavirus species infecting yerba mate. The complete sequence of the linear dsRNA viral genome is 13,954-nt long, contains a single 13,743 nt ORF, and presents a 149 nt 5'UTR and a 61 nt 3'UTR. The predicted ORF encodes a 4,581 aa polypeptide with a UDP-glucose glycosyl-transferase, a capsular polysaccharide synthesis protein, and a RNA-dependent RNA polymerase domain. The name yerba mate endornavirus is proposed for the identified virus. Due to the intriguing peculiarities of this virus family, and the complete lack of the yerba mate virus literature, we consider that the information reported here will be helpful in leading to a new and needed attention to this important topic and crop.

Tracking the evolution of sex chromosome systems in Melanoplinae grasshoppers through chromosomal mapping of repetitive DNA sequences.

BACKGROUND: The accumulation of repetitive DNA during sex chromosome differentiation is a common feature of many eukaryotes and becomes more evident after recombination has been restricted or abolished. The accumulated repetitive sequences include multigene families, microsatellites, satellite DNAs and mobile elements, all of which are important for the structural remodeling of heterochromatin. In grasshoppers, derived sex chromosome systems, such as neo-XY♂/XX♀ and neo-X1X2Y♂/X1X1X2X2♀, are frequently observed in the Melanoplinae subfamily. However, no studies concerning the evolution of sex chromosomes in Melanoplinae have addressed the role of the repetitive DNA sequences. To further investigate the evolution of sex chromosomes in grasshoppers, we used classical cytogenetic and FISH analyses to examine the repetitive DNA sequences in six phylogenetically related Melanoplinae species with X0♂/XX♀, neo-XY♂/XX♀ and neo-X1X2Y♂/X1X1X2X2♀ sex chromosome systems. RESULTS: Our data indicate a non-spreading of heterochromatic blocks and pool of repetitive DNAs (C0t-1 DNA) in the sex chromosomes; however, the spreading of multigene families among the neo-sex chromosomes of Eurotettix and Dichromatos was remarkable, particularly for 5S rDNA. In autosomes, FISH mapping of multigene families revealed distinct patterns of chromosomal organization at the intra- and intergenomic levels. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest a common origin and subsequent differential accumulation of repetitive DNAs in the sex chromosomes of Dichromatos and an independent origin of the sex chromosomes of the neo-XY and neo-X1X2Y systems. Our data indicate a possible role for repetitive DNAs in the diversification of sex chromosome systems in grasshoppers.

Bergmann's rule across the equator: a case study in Cerdocyon thous (Canidae).

1. The variation in cranial size of the crab-eating fox Cerdocyon thous was analysed in relation to latitude and several environmental variables throughout its distribution in South America. 2. We tested the existence of clines to determine whether this canid follows Bergmann's rule to the north and south of the Equator. Also, using niche modelling, we analysed whether the climatic changes during the last glaciation could have influenced Bergmann's rule in this species. We quantified the size of the cranium of C. thous (n = 300). The data were divided into two groups: (i) south of the Equator (n = 163) and (ii) north of the Equator (n = 137). We performed correlations, OLS regressions and simultaneous autoregressions to analyse the relationship between the variation in size and different geographic and environmental variables. Data of occurrence (n = 594) together with ambient variables from the present and the last glacial maximum (LGM) were used to predict the occurrence of C. thous with the implementation of the maximum entropy method. Present-day and historical distribution maps were obtained. 3. The variation in the size of the cranium of C. thous showed two trends. In the south of Equator, we observed that the size of the skull shows an inverse relationship with temperature-related variables and a positive one with precipitation, while in north of the Equator, we observed the opposite relationship. Populations south of the Equator follow Bergmann's rule showing increasing size with increasing latitude. To the north of the Equator, a non-Bergmannian pattern occurs because size decreases with increasing latitude. 4. Niche modelling showed two present-day groupings in South America, one north of Amazonia and the other south. However, for the period of the LGM, four groups emerged, possibly related to the four subspecies presently described for C. thous. Therefore, it is possible that the observed pattern - southern populations following Bergmann's rule while northern populations reflecting the opposite - has been influenced by the events that occurred during the LGM that could have led to the differentiation of populations.

Neo-sex chromosome diversity in Neotropical melanopline grasshoppers (Melanoplinae, Acrididae).

We report the results of a study on the neo-sex chromosome systems of six Neotropical Melanoplinae species for contributing to a better understanding of their origin and behaviour of these systems. Our analyses included detailed descriptions of the structure and behaviour of the sex chromosome configurations in male and female meiosis of species belonging to the genera Ronderosia, Dichromatos and Atrachelacris. Three species, R. forcipatus, R. malloi and A. unicolor, showed typical Robertsonian fusion-derived neo sex-chromosomes. However, the male metaphase I orientation of R. bergi sex pair indicated that more than one rearrangement was involved in its origin. The two species of Dichromatos presented a multiple neo-X(1)X(2)Y/X(1)X(1)X(2)X(2) sex system, with two Robertsonian fusions involved in their genesis. Observations of female meiosis, confirmed the nature of the sex-chromosomes analyzed. Our results also showed different degrees of homology divergence between the neo-sex chromosomes and emphasize the plasticity of the chromosome complement of the Neotropical Melanoplinae to establish Robertsonian fusions and generate novel sex-chromosome systems. We also discuss karyotypic diversity within this group in terms of the centromeric drive theory of chromosomal evolution.

A test of Allen's rule in ectotherms: the case of two south American Melanopline Grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae) with partially overlapping geographic ranges.

We studied the geographic variation of three morphometric characters in relation to body size in two South American grasshoppers (Acrididae), Dichroplus vittatus Bruner and D. pratensis Bruner to test Allen's rule in these ectotherms. Since both species follow the converse to Bergmann's rule owing to latitudinal and/or altitudinal variation in time available for growth and reproduction, geographic variation in body size proportions of protruding parts may obey to differential allometric growth in different geographic areas. Alternatively, it could reflect true Allenian variation related to thermoregulation. Body proportions were studied by correlation/regression analyses with geographic and climatic variables. In D. pratensis, body proportions increased with latitude and decreased with altitude. These results probably obey to the effects of water balance and seasonality on final body size, and on the allometric growth of the three studied characters not being related to thermoregulation. In D. vittatus, a generally non-significant trend towards the decrease of the mean proportions of all three characters with increasing latitude was observed. Nevertheless, also in this species, it is probable that the environmental gradient responds to seasonality factors (although not to water balance) that affect the length of growing season and, in consequence, body size and its allometric relationships. We conclude that the regularities in the geographic distribution of body proportions of D. pratensis and D. vittatus do not follow Allen's rule in the sense of thermoregulation, and result from variables that determine growing season length and the allometric growth of different body parts.

A test of Allen's rule in ectotherms: the case of two south American Melanopline Grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae) with partially overlapping geographic ranges / Un test de la regla de Allen en ectotermos: el caso de dos Saltamontes Melanoplinos (Orthoptera: Acrididae) sudamericanos con distribuciones Geográficas parcialmente solapadas

We studied the geographic variation of three morphometric characters in relation to body size in two South American grasshoppers (Acrididae), Dichroplus vittatus Bruner and D. pratensis Bruner to test Allen's rule in these ectotherms. Since both species follow the converse to Bergmann's rule owing to latitudinal and/or altitudinal variation in time available for growth and reproduction, geographic variation in body size proportions of protruding parts may obey to differential allometric growth in different geographic areas. Alternatively, it could reflect true Allenian variation related to thermoregulation. Body proportions were studied by correlation/regression analyses with geographic and climatic variables. In D. pratensis, body proportions increased with latitude and decreased with altitude. These results probably obey to the effects of water balance and seasonality on final body size, and on the allometric growth of the three studied characters not being related to thermoregulation. In D. vittatus, a generally non-significant trend towards the decrease of the mean proportions of all three characters with increasing latitude was observed. Nevertheless, also in this species, it is probable that the environmental gradient responds to seasonality factors (although not to water balance) that affect the length of growing season and, in consequence, body size and its allometric relationships. We conclude that the regularities in the geographic distribution of body proportions of D. pratensis and D. vittatus do not follow Allen's rule in the sense of thermoregulation, and result from variables that determine growing season length and the allometric growth of different body parts.

Estudiamos la variación geográfica de tres caracteres morfométricos en relación al tamaño corporal, en dos saltamontes sudamericanos (Acrididae), Dichroplus vittatus Bruner y D. pratensis Bruner, para verificar la regla de Allen en ectotermos. Ambas especies siguen la regla de Bergmann inversa por variación latitudinal y/o altitudinal en el tiempo disponible para crecimiento y reproducción; entonces la variación de proporciones de partes salientes del cuerpo, obedecería a crecimiento alométrico diferencial en diferentes áreas geográficas. Alternativamente, podría reflejar variación alleniana relacionada a termorregulación. Las proporciones corporales se estudiaron por análisis de correlación/regresión con variables geográficas y climáticas. En D. pratensis, las proporciones corporales aumentaron con la latitud, y decrecieron con la altitud. Esto probablemente obedezca a efectos del balance hídrico y la estacionalidad sobre el tamaño corporal final, y al crecimiento alométrico de los tres caracteres independientemente de la termorregulación. En D. vittatus, se observó una tendencia generalmente no significativa al decrecimiento de las proporciones de los tres caracteres con el incremento de latitud. Sin embargo, también es probable que el gradiente ambiental responda a factores de estacionalidad que afectan la duración de la estación de crecimiento y, consecuentemente, el tamaño corporal y sus relaciones alométricas. Concluimos qué las relaciones alométricas en la distribución geográfica de proporciones corporales de D. pratensis y D. vittatus no siguen la regla de Allen en el sentido de la termorregulación, y son el resultado de variables que determinan la duración de la estación de crecimiento y el crecimiento alométrico de diferentes partes del cuerpo.