Review: Assessment of completeness of reporting in intervention studies using livestock: an example from pain mitigation interventions in neonatal piglets.

Accurate and complete reporting of study methods, results and interpretation are essential components for any scientific process, allowing end-users to evaluate the internal and external validity of a study. When animals are used in research, excellence in reporting is expected as a matter of continued ethical acceptability of animal use in the sciences. Our primary objective was to assess completeness of reporting for a series of studies relevant to mitigation of pain in neonatal piglets undergoing routine management procedures. Our second objective was to illustrate how authors can report the items in the Reporting guidElines For randomized controLled trials for livEstoCk and food safety (REFLECT) statement using examples from the animal welfare science literature. A total of 52 studies from 40 articles were evaluated using a modified REFLECT statement. No single study reported all REFLECT checklist items. Seven studies reported specific objectives with testable hypotheses. Six studies identified primary or secondary outcomes. Randomization and blinding were considered to be partially reported in 21 and 18 studies, respectively. No studies reported the rationale for sample sizes. Several studies failed to report key design features such as units for measurement, means, standard deviations, standard errors for continuous outcomes or comparative characteristics for categorical outcomes expressed as either rates or proportions. In the discipline of animal welfare science, authors, reviewers and editors are encouraged to use available reporting guidelines to ensure that scientific methods and results are adequately described and free of misrepresentations and inaccuracies. Complete and accurate reporting increases the ability to apply the results of studies to the decision-making process and prevent wastage of financial and animal resources.

Pain management in the neonatal piglet during routine management procedures. Part 2: grading the quality of evidence and the strength of recommendations.

Piglets reared in swine production in the USA undergo painful procedures that include castration, tail docking, teeth clipping, and identification with ear notching or tagging. These procedures are usually performed without pain mitigation. The objective of this project was to develop recommendations for pain mitigation in 1- to 28-day-old piglets undergoing these procedures. The National Pork Board funded project to develop recommendations for pain mitigation in piglets. Recommendation development followed a defined multi-step process that included an evidence summary and estimates of the efficacies of interventions. The results of a systematic review of the interventions were reported in a companion paper. This manuscript describes the recommendation development process and the final recommendations. Recommendations were developed for three interventions (CO2/O2 general anesthesia, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and lidocaine) for use during castration. The ability to make strong recommendations was limited by low-quality evidence and strong certainty about variation in stakeholder values and preferences. The panel strongly recommended against the use of a CO2/O2 general anesthesia mixture, weakly recommended for the use of NSAIDs and weakly recommended against the use of lidocaine for pain mitigation during castration of 1- to 28-day-old piglets.

Prevalence of selected enteropathogenic bacteria in Hungarian finishing pigs.

The aim of this study was to obtain prevalence estimates about the most important enteropathogenic bacteria: Lawsonia intracellularis, Brachyspira hyodysenteriae, Brachyspira pilosicoli, Salmonella enterica and Clostridium perfringens A and C in Hungarian farrow-to-finish pig herds. A total of 31 herds were selected, from where six pooled faecal samples, each containing three individual rectal faecal samples were collected from fattening pigs of 5-6 months of age. All 186 samples were examined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the presence of the pathogens mentioned above. Lawsonia intracellularis was found in 29 herds (93.55%) and in 108 samples (58.06%); B. hyodysenteriae in 14 herds (45.16%) and in 23 samples (12.37%); B. pilosicoli in 19 herds (61.29%) and in 53 samples (28.49%); S. enterica in 17 herds (54.83%) and in 40 samples (21.50%). We detected the presence of C. perfringens A in 19 herds (61.29%) and in 46 samples (24.73%), while C. perfringens C was found in 8 herds (25.81%) and in 11 samples (5.91%). All examined herds were infected with one or more of these agents. Herds with diarrhoea in the mid- to late finishing phase had almost 10 times higher prevalence of B. hyodysenteriae than herds without such a history.

Effect of vitamin supplements on some aspects of performance, vitamin status, and semen quality in boars.

The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of dietary supplements of vitamins on vitamin status, libido, and semen characteristics in young boars under normal and intensive semen collection. Sixty Landrace, Yorkshire, and Duroc boars were allocated randomly from 6 to 10 mo of age to one of the following diets: 1) basal diet (industry level) for minerals and vitamins (Control, n = 15); 2) basal diet supplemented with vitamin C (ASC, n = 15); 3) basal diet supplemented with fat-soluble vitamins (FSV, n = 15); and 4) basal diet supplemented with water-soluble vitamins (WSV, n = 15). After puberty (approximately 12 mo of age), semen was collected at a regular frequency (three times every 2 wk) for 5 wk. Thereafter, all boars were intensively collected (daily during 2 wk). A recovery period (semen collection three times every 2 wk) followed and lasted for 10 wk. Sperm quality (percentage of motile cells and percentage of morphologically normal cells) and quantity (sperm concentration, semen volume, and total sperm number) were recorded as well as direct and hormone related measurements of boar libido. Blood and seminal plasma samples were taken to monitor vitamin status. High concentrations of B6 (P < 0.05) and folic acid (P < 0.05) were observed in the blood plasma of WSV boars, whereas greater concentrations of vitamin E (P < 0.01) were obtained in FSV boars. In the seminal plasma, folic acid concentrations tended to be greater in WSV boars (P < 0.08). During the intensive collection period, there was a tendency (P < 0.06) for semen production to be greater in WSV boars, the effect being less pronounced (P < 0.10) in FSV boars. During the recovery period, the percentage of motile sperm cells was greater in WSV boars (P < 0.03) and, to a lesser extent, in FSV boars (P < 0.10) compared with Control boars. Sperm morphology and libido were not affected by treatments. These results indicate that the transfer of vitamins from blood to seminal plasma is limited and the dietary supplements of water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins may increase semen production during intensive semen collection.

Effects of repeated cross-fosterings on preweaning behavior and growth performance of piglets and on maternal behavior of sows.

Extensive cross-fostering is widely used in early-weaning units in order to standardize and improve body weight at weaning. However, young suckling piglets develop teat fidelity and repeated cross-fosterings could go against this behavior. This experiment was therefore conducted to compare the behavior and growth of 13 control and 14 fostered litters. Once every 3 d (from d 1 to 16 of lactation), all piglets were weighed and three piglets were switched between two fostered litters. Their unfostered littermates were called residents. Behavior was recorded for 2 h after weighing and(or) adoption and during one nursing period 24 h later. Fights were more frequent (P < 0.05) in treated than in control litters during and between nursings at all ages of adoption except d 1. Most fights occurred between resident and fostered piglets (P < 0.001), except at d 1. Fights during nursing were still more frequent in treated than in control litters 24 h after adoption (P < 0.02), except at d 1 and 16. More piglets had skin lacerations in treated than in control litters except at d 1 (P < 0.05), and scratches were more frequent in fostered than in resident piglets at d 1 (P = 0.07), 7, 13, and 16 (P < 0.01). At all ages except d 1, failed nursings and snaps at piglets were more frequent in fostered than in control litters (P < 0.05), most snaps being directed at adopted piglets (P < 0.001). In fostered litters, sows spent 15 to 30% less time lying on their sides at d 4, 7, 13, and 16 (P < 0.05). Finally, adopted piglets were 13% lighter than controls at weaning (P < 0.001), whereas residents were heavier than adopted piglets (P < 0.05) but lighter than controls (P = 0.1). These data demonstrate that cross-fostering done repeatedly during lactation is stressful for piglets and sows and does not improve body weight at weaning.

Epidemiological, clinical and control investigations on field porcine coccidiosis: clinical, epidemiological and parasitological paradigms?

For several reasons, we are convinced that the parasitologist community must look again at porcine neonatal coccidiosis. We find it surprising that this disease is seldom addressed, and that assumptions are not always supported by clinico-epidemiological analysis. For example, the relationship between diarrhoea and the excretion of oocysts during experimental infection versus field infection is not questioned. Lindsay et al. review parasitological knowledge of this disease in the latest (1999) edition of Diseases of swine. Although this paper is divided into two parts, we have three distinct objectives: (1) to bring to the debate our experience in the medical control of this disease; (2) to propose a diagnostic methodology; (3) to raise some questions on various clinical, epidemiological and parasitological unknowns.

Relationships between individual behavioural traits and post-weaning growth in segregated early-weaned piglets.

Piglets' individual behavioural traits have been studied in the last decade but no report has linked these traits with growth. This experiment was conducted to determine if behavioural traits of segregated early-weaned piglets could be good predictors of their post-weaning growth and, thus, help to predict their adaptation to early weaning. Following segregated early weaning at 17+/-1 days old, 252 piglets were submitted to three tests between 20 and 25 days of age: open-field, reaction to humans and rank order based on competition for a restricted-access feeder. The body weight of each piglet was measured the day before weaning and once a week for the next 4 weeks. A principal component analysis yielded five factors with an Eigenvalue higher than 0.90 that accounted for 81% of the total variation between individuals: reaction to humans (25%), active response to stress (21%), passive response to stress (14%), feeding behaviour (10%) and rank order (9%). Passive reaction to stress was associated with better weight gain during the first week post-weaning (r=0.18; P=0.01), and a positive correlation was found between social status and weight gain during the 4 weeks following weaning (-0.15

[The effect of health care settings on children's immunization status]. / Impact des organisations de services sur l'état vaccinal des enfants.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of practice settings (CLSC and private office) and family characteristics (mother's age and education, children's rank in families) on children's immunization status and adherence to the immunization schedule. The study population was composed of 209 children born in 1991 and residing in the Regional Municipal County of Montmagny, Quebec. After adjusting for mother's education, those children vaccinated in a private office were at 13.3 times higher risk for incomplete immunization than those vaccinated in a CLSC. A similar but nonsignificant result was obtained regarding adherence to the immunization schedule. The factors likely to account for the results are the first contact and follow-up mechanisms put into place by the CLSC. The effectiveness of such mechanisms seems to be related to their population-based rather than client-oriented responsibility.

Sensitivity of reproducing sows and suckling pigs to stray voltage.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether stray voltage reduces welfare of sows and their litters, causes reproductive problems, or impairs growth and survival of suckling pigs. ANIMALS: 120 gilts assigned randomly to 3 treatment groups: 2-V baseline plus 3-V pulses (2-5 V); 5-V baseline plus 3-V pulses (5-8 V); and control treatment (0-0 V). PROCEDURE: Behavior was recorded during gestation and lactation. Water and feed intakes were measured daily, milk composition was evaluated once during lactation, and hematocrit, hemoglobin, glucose, total protein, aspartate transaminase, alanine transaminase, albumin, globulins, and fatty acids values were measured at mating, weeks 8 and 15 of gestation, parturition, and weaning. Prolific ability of sows, mortality and disease of suckling pigs, and growth rate until 56 days of age were recorded. RESULTS: Gilts under voltage were lying down more often and performing less abnormal behaviors than were control gilts. Behavior of sows and suckling pigs was not affected by treatments. Water and feed intakes were similar among treatments, except during week 1 of lactation where feed intake was lower in the control group. Fecundity and prolific ability of sows, percentage of stillbirth, growth rate of suckling pigs, and milk composition were similar among treatments. More suckling pigs died in 2-5-V group than in other groups, but diarrhea was more frequent in the control group. Blood metabolites were similar among treatment groups. CONCLUSIONS: Transient stray voltage at values up to 8 V did not impair the welfare, reproductive performance, or health of sows and suckling pigs.

Serum concentrations of micronutrients, packed cell volume, and blood hemoglobin during the first two gestations and lactations of sows.

The objective of the present work was to describe the changes in serum concentrations of some micronutrients during the first 2 gestations and lactations of 33 gilts in order to establish blood reference values for a rapid assessment of nutritional status. In both parities, blood samples were taken from the jugular vein at mating, 5, 10 and 15 wk of gestation and l d and 4 wk after parturition (weaning). Reference values (mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum) for serum folates, vitamin B12, vitamin B6 metabolites (pyridoxal and pyridoxal-5-phosphate), calcium, phosphorus, sodium, zinc, copper and iron, as well as blood hemoglobin and packed cell volume are reported for each studied time. Differences between parities and between each time are also reported. Results from the present report demonstrate that knowledge of the physiological state of the sows is critical for the assessment of nutritional status of an individual or a breeding herd by interpretation of analyses of blood constituents.

A 24-week open-label phase I/II evaluation of the HIV protease inhibitor MK-639 (indinavir).

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the safety, pharmacokinetics, and activity of the orally bio-available protease inhibitor MK-639. DESIGN: An open-label Phase I/II trial of medically stable subjects with screening CD4 lymphocyte counts < or = 300 x 10(6)/I and > or = 20,000 HIV RNA copies/ml. Pharmacokinetics were performed at days 1 and 15. In order to better understand the relationships between drug exposure, baseline activity markers, and their changes during the study, mathematical modeling was performed using the traditional sigmoid-Emax relationship of pharmacologic effect and first order inhomogeneous differential equations for a two compartment system. RESULTS: The five men enrolled had extensive prior nucleoside therapy (mean, 32.6 +/- 25.6 months), a low mean CD4 lymphocyte cell count (CD4 count, 66.1 +/- 61 x 10(6)/I and CD4 percentage, 4.4 +/- 3.1%), high soluble tumor necrosis factor-alpha type II (sTNFII) receptor concentration (6.23 +/- 2.76 ng/ml) and high viral load (5.13 +/- 0.46 log10 RNA copies/ ml; geometric mean, 133,941 copies/ml). The drug was well tolerated at a dose of 600 mg every 6 h. The steady state concentrations Cmax and Cmin were 4.94 +/- 2.16 microM and 0.28 +/-0.1 microM, respectively, which are approximately equal to 50 and 3 times the 95% inhibitory concentration (IC95) for clinical isolates, respectively. The mean increase in CD4 cell count was 143 x 10(6)/ (217% increase ), the mean increase in CD4 percentage was 5.2 percentage points (118%), mean decrease in HIV RNA was 1.55 log10 RNA copies/ml (a geometric mean difference of 130,120 copies/ml or 97% decrease) with a slow upward drift on continued therapy to a mean 0.64 log10 RNA copies/ml decrease by week 24 (a geometric mean difference of 103,084 copies/ml or 77% decrease), and a mean decrease in sTNFII receptors of 2.78 ng/ml (45% decrease). The mean CD4 counts per week as a function of the starting CD4 counts fit a sigmoid-Emax relationship (r2 = 0.998, P < 0.0001) with the return of CD4 cells being strongly related to the number of CD4 cells at baseline. Drug exposure as measured by either the total exposure (area under the concentration/time curve) or as the Cmin gave similar significant relationships to the fractional inhibition of HIV generation (r2 = 0.999, P < 0.0001, and r2 = 0.996, P < 0.0001, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: MK-639 appears to have significant dose-related antiviral activity and is well tolerated.

Detection of cervical bacterial contamination in swine by two methods of swabbing in relation to artificial insemination.

Factors associated with uterine contamination during artificial insemination (AI) are not well defined. A frequently imputed risk factor is vulvar hygiene, although its role has never been assessed objectively. The aim of this study was to identify an objective marker of hygiene during AI and to assess the impact of vulvar hygiene on cervical contamination. In a herd in a depopulation-repopulation process, 68 paired sows of each parity were divided into 2 treatment groups. Before 2 sham AIs, with a 24 hour interval, control sows (CTR) had their vulva cleaned and treatment sows (TRT) had theirs soiled with feces. After the 2nd sham AI, swabbings were taken from the spirette and from the cervix. Bacterial growth was assessed by a semiquantitative method, and aerobic bacterial species identified. The discordance between the paired data was assessed by a McNemar chi-square test. No difference in gram-positive bacterial counts between the 2 groups was found using the cervical swab (P > 0.05). The presence of trace colonies of Escherichia coli were, however, more frequent in TRT (P < 0.05). The spirette showed a greater contamination for mixed flora of bacterial species such as E. coli (P < 0.001) and non-S. suis streptococci (P < 0.05) in TRT sows. A light cervical E. coli growth was more frequent when the vulva had been soiled. Bacterial flora on the spirette following AI may be used as an objective and practical indicator of vulvar hygiene during AI in sows.

Gentamicin pharmacokinetics in newborn and 42-day-old male piglets.

The pharmacokinetics of gentamicin was investigated in six newborn male piglets, aged from 4 to 12 h at the time of administration of the drug, and six 42-day-old castrated male piglets, that had been weaned for 2 weeks following a single intravenous bolus of 5 mg/kg. Gentamicin was measured in serum and in urine by a fluorescence polarization immunoassay. The serum concentration-time data were best described by a three-compartment open model. A rapid initial distribution phase (pi phase) was observed in every animal. The serum beta half-life (t 1/2 beta) was significantly longer in the newborn piglets (mean +/- SEM) (5.19 +/- 0.30 h) than in the older group (3.50 +/- 0.23 h) (P < 0.05). Mean residence time was similarly longer in younger piglets (6.62 +/- 0.57 h) than in older animals (2.86 +/- 0.11 h) (P < 0.05). The steady-state volume of distribution (Vdss) was significantly larger for younger pigs (0.785 +/- 0.036 L/kg) than in elder pigs (0.474 +/- 0.029 L/kg) (P < 0.05). Urinary gamma half-life (t 1/2 gamma u) was 72.66 +/- 10.78 h in the newborn piglets and 69.20 +/- 14.77 h in the 42-day-old animals. A urinary delta phase was observed in three of the 42-day-old piglets and gave a mean t 1/2 delta u of 232.01 +/- 14.55 h. Percentages of urinary recovery of the administered dose after 144 h were 94.18 +/- 1.01 and 94.04 +/- 1.12 in the newborn and 42-day-old animals, respectively. Serum gentamicin clearance was significantly lower in younger animals (0.121 +/- 0.007 L/h.kg) than in the 42-day-old group (0.166 +/- 0.010 L/h.kg). It is suggested that in the newborn piglets, the increase of Vd(SS) could be explained by a higher proportion of extracellular water while the lower clearance could be attributed to a reduced glomerular filtration capacity. Gentamicin dosage requirement in the newborn piglets would therefore have to be adjusted, in order to take into consideration the observed differences in the man values of these latter pharmacokinetic parameters.

Influence of vulvar hygiene on cytology of vaginal smears after sham artificial insemination in sows.

The description of vaginal cytology in the sow in relation to artificial insemination (AI) has never been reported. Poor vulvar hygiene is frequently imputed as a cause for the development of endometritis after AI and could thus enhance the inflammatory response of the genital tract. The goal of this study was to use cytology as an objective tool to evaluate the vulvar hygiene during sham AI. Sixty-eight sows were matched according to their parity and week of mating and divided into 2 groups: treatment sows (CVS) had their vulva cleaned with a 1:2000 Hibitane solution and control sows (SVS) had theirs soiled with feces. Both groups of sows were inseminated twice with saline following this vulvar treatment, once at detection of estrus and a 2nd time 24 hours later. Vestibular smears were taken before each AI, and vaginal smears were taken after each AI from the material present on the insemination spirette. Cytological smears were described by the predominant type of cells, namely epithelial, neutrophil, or no predominance. Results showed no significant differences between the 2 groups and no evolution in the predominance of neutrophils from the 1st to the 2nd AI (P > 0.05). The pooled results from the 2 groups showed an increase in cellularity from the 1st to the 2nd AI (P > 0.05). Neither the cellularity nor predominant cell type in vestibular or vaginal smears from estrus sows are predictors of vulvar hygiene during sham AI (P > 0.05).

Effect of bulky diets based on wheat bran or oat hulls on reproductive performance of sows during their first two parities.

The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of different degrees of bulkiness in the gestation diet on reproductive performance of sows during their first two parities. The density of the diets was modified by incorporating a high proportion of fibrous ingredients (wheat bran and corn cobs in Diet 2 and oat hulls and oats in Diet 3). A diet without fibrous ingredients was used as a control (corn and soybean meal in Diet 1). Although all the gestation diets were formulated to provide the same daily intake of the major nutrients, sows fed Diet 3 were the lightest and had the lowest backfat thickness (P < or = .05) during both parities, and those fed Diet 2 were the heaviest and the fattest (P < or = .05) during the second parity. These results seem to indicate an overestimation of the calculated nutritive value of Diet 3, whereas those obtained with Diet 2 seemed to be linked to its marked effect on behavior of sows during the second parity. There was no marked effect (P > .11) of treatments on the number of pigs born alive, on preweaning mortality, or on the weaning-to-estrus interval. At parturition, total litter weight was similar among treatments in the first parity, whereas in the second parity it was greater (P < or = .05) in sows fed Diet 2 than in those fed Diets 1 and 3. In both parities, feed intake of the common lactation diet given during lactation was 5% higher (P < or = .05) for sows fed Diet 3 during gestation than for sows fed the other diets.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Reconciling productivity and welfare in intensive pig husbandry: a challenge for the year 2000.

In the first part of this paper, the authors discuss the growing concern of consumers for farm animal welfare, and the attitude adopted by veterinarians to cope with this new and more humanitarian concept of intensive husbandry. The effects of intensification of pig production on the ability of pigs to adapt, and the behavioural, husbandry and health consequences of the principal stress factors in pig rearing are reviewed and illustrated by examples from recent research. In conclusion, the authors discuss the importance of constructive integration of welfare into pig production, in training courses and in actual application.

Prosthetic profile of people with lower extremity amputation: conception and design of a follow-up questionnaire.

A questionnaire, the Prosthetic Profile of the Amputee (PPA), is described both in terms of its conceptualization and design. The objectives of the questionnaire (mail and telephone versions) were to evaluate and to determine the factors potentially related to prosthetic use by a person with a lower extremity amputation after discharge from rehabilitation. The PRECEDE theoretical model (Predisposing Reinforcing and Enabling Causes in Educational Diagnosis and Evaluation) was adapted to the present study and served as a guide for the conceptual basis of the instrument. A multidisciplinary group of 13 experts and another group of eight persons with lower limb amputation were involved in the identification, classification, and priority rating of the factors related to prosthetic use. The design of the questionnaire was structured according to Dillman's Total Design Method. To ensure the content validity of the instrument, the pertinence of each question with regard to the questionnaire's objectives was assessed by the group of experts. Pretesting of the questionnaire was then conducted with a random sample of 26 people with lower extremity amputations. The preliminary version of the instrument has already demonstrated the potential for clinical and research use.