Relationships between specialized cells, capillaries and intermediary cytofibrillary elements. XVIIth Note. Biological evolution of the respiratory subsystem in Reptilia.

This note continues the XIIth, XVth and XVIth ones concerning the biological evolution of the respiratory subsystem (SS.Rs.) in invertebrates, aquatic vertebrates and amphibians. Author tries to discern some of the factors involved in the passage from Amphibia to Reptilia. The lengthy evolution of embryotrophic mechanisms during this process in the light of the aromorphotic theory (A. N. Sewertsow) and the accelerating form of dyschronism (De Beer) are highlighted. The result of these changes is the formation of a large telolecithal egg endowed with all the embryotrophic reserves needed for the terrestrial evolution, for its acceleration and condensation, through the suppression of the larval stage and of metamorphosis, as well as through the appearance of some new characters. The evolution of the extraembryonic area in Amniota precursors and in Amniota and their homeothermal descendants, both oviparous and viviparous, is also discussed. The succession of respiratory organs is followed up (yolk sac, external branchiae, allantois, placenta) in the light of the organ substitution theory and of the biological stereo-type theory (Mârza, Repciuc, Eskenasy).

The vascular biological stereotype and the achievement problem of the neurohumoral integration during phylogenesis.

There is developed Bertalanffy's theory of systems on the evolution process of biological stereotypes (theory of Mârza, Repciuc, Eskenasy 1962) and the systemic theory nomenclature used in biology is critically discussed. A more complete definition of the reactivity is attempted. Biological stereotypes are analogous to the Pavlovian absolute reflexes and represent specialized and integrated parts of the reactivity, which forms a unity of contraries with the metabolism. There is considered that a biological stereotypes achieves to form a system when the specific organ is differentiated. On this basis is pursued the achievement of the systemic stage of nervous, emunctory (excretory), alimentary, vascular, respiratory subsystems. The nervous subsystem--and implicitly the nervous integration--is the first subsystem to be differentiated in phylogeny. The humoral integration is tardier appeared. The formation of the vascular subsystem represents a qualitative leap which allowed the evolution of all the other subsystems, inclusively of the nervous and endocrine ones, as well as of the homeostasis system. The last chapter present 6 phases of the vascular subsystem evolution starting from the structural plan of circulation in Annelida, and passing through those of Stomochordata, of fishes, of Dipnoi fishes, of Anura and Mammalia. The highly stable characters of the structural plan of the vascular subsystem evolution (the morphofunctional stereotypes of Mârza, Repciuc and Eskenasy 1962) are pointed out. This stability is interpreted in the light of the stabilizing selection. The cardiac pump and the lymphatics are differentiated from venous vessels. The integration of the arterial circulation with the heart starts in Dipnoi fishes and reached the highest form only in mammalians.

Relationships between specialized cells, capillaries and intermediary cytofibrillary elements. XVth note. Biological evolution of the respiratory stereotype and subsystem in aquatic vertebrates.

The author continues in aquatic vertebrates the study of the evolution of the respiratory stereotype initiated in the XIIth note of this series and carried out in the light of the systemic conception (Bertalanffy), of Needham's theory of order in nature, and of the theory of biological stereotypes (Mârza, Repciuc, Eskenasy). The stability of some characters of the respiratory stereotype inherited by vertebrates from invertebrates is pointed out. The respiratory stereotype in vertebrates gradually passed from the respiration of water-dissolved oxygen through branchiae and skin, to the concomitant uptake of this form and of air oxygen (through buccopharyngeal formations, gaseous bladder or rudimentary lungs in osseous fishes), the double respiration (in Amphibia) and later the air respiration in Reptilia. The five steps of this gradual evolution are described, as well as the conditions of the evolution from crossopterygians to Tetrapoda (amphibians and reptiles).

Retrospective data on the pituitary gland response during immune and neoplastic processes.

A synthesis of many experimental works performed during the last ten years regarding the nonspecific response of the pituitary gland during some immune and neoplastic processes is presented. Different modalities of the response of pituitary gland cell that vary depending on the antigen type were observed. The TAB vaccine inducing a humoral immune response determined an increased secretory activity of STH and FSH cells which are involved by their secretions in the activation of protein synthesis also including antibodies. The tumoral antigens also representing a stressing factor brought about a more intense activity besides the FSH cells, the ACTH and TSH cells.

Relationships between specialized cells, capillaries and intermediary cytofibrillary elements. XIIth note. Biological evolution of the respiratory stereotype and subsystem in invertebrates.

This note presents the respiratory stereotype and subsystem in invertebrates, developing the previous notes on the emunctory stereotype and subsystem (Xth and XIth notes). As in the previous ones, Cannon's homeostasis conception and Bertlanffy's theory of systems were corroborated with Needham's theory of internal laws and of limits of organizational biological levels, and with the author's theory of biological stereotypes (Mârza, Repciuc, Eskenasy, 1962). Four links of the respiratory stereotype (Rsp. Stp.) and subsystem (Rsp. SS) were distinguished. The respiratory subsystem was differentiated when, in triblastic animals, the organizational level of higher worms and of their offsprings was reached. The four links of the Rsp. Stp. are: the Ist link is represented by the oxidoreduction processes of tissue and organ cells; the IInd is the internal conveying link of O2 and CO2; the IIIrd comprises the osmotic surfaces changes and the transport of gases inwards the branchiae or lungs, and later by the water (respectively air)--blood barrier; the IVth link is formed from the structures and mechanisms of rhythmic movements which significantly increase the exchanges at the barrier level. Each link has its specific properties. The gradual evolution of each link and of the vicarious organs of gas exchange is dwelt upon, as well as the interactions between the respiratory subsystem and the other homeostasis subsystems. The theoretical interpretation of the Rsp. Stp. and Rsp. SS evolution also resorted to the theories of stabilizing selection (Schmalhausen, 1949), of canalizing selection (Waddington, 1975 and of disruptive selection (Simpson, 1953; Mayr, 1970).

Relationship between specialized cells, capillaries and intermediary cytofibrillary elements. XIth note. Biological evolution of the emunctory subsystem and stereotype in vertebrates.

This note completes in vertebrates the study of the emunctory subsystem and stereotype in invertebrates (Xth note). The theory of systems (and of open biological systems) of Bertalanffy, the theory of internal laws and limits of each organizational level (Needham) and the theory of biological stereotypes and of their morphofunctional expression (Mârza, Repciuc and Eskenasy) are also corroborated. In this light there were studied: the characters of the emunctory stereotype in vertebrates, its similar formation mode by three links (extracting, conveying and excretory links) as in the coelomatous invertebrates, and the passage of the emunctory stereotype from invertebrates to vertebrates. The present-day Acraniata and their offsprings, the Protocraniata, Agnatha and aquatic Gnathostoma, have an emunctory stereotype identical in its essential characters, without discrepancies between its links. The passage does not occur, however, from the metanephridia to the pronephros, but to the mesonephros. This latter reaches its highest functional limits in Dipnoi and Amphibia. The author indicates the mechanisms which, in its opinion, play a role in the activation of organo-genetic capacities of the metanephros in the caudal nephrogenic area. The importance of the three nephrogenic areas of the vertebrates, their succession and interdependence are also discussed. The problem of the archi(holo)nephros is critically reviewed, and the author's hypothesis that the glomerular ultrafiltrate and the coelomic liquid of invertebrates with metanephridia had the same composition and underwent the same processes of reabsorption-secretion is dwelt upon. A conclusion is drawn from these two notes, according to which stability--directed by the stabilizing selection--plays a directional role in the evolution of the new organizational levels, in the maintenance and development of the characters of the emunctory stereotype within the emunctory subsystem (EMSS). Between variability and stability strong relations are established and hereditarily transmitted.

Relationships between specialized cells, capillaries and intermediary cytofibrillary elements. Xth Note. Biological evolution of the emonctory subsystem and stereotype in invertebrates.

The paper points out the importance of homeostasis as the most general system of the organism (Ist order system) and the 2nd order subsystem which composes it, discussing the relations between them and the biological evolution of the emonctory subsystem in protists and invertebrates. The emonctory structures, functions and stereotype and their component parts are studied in protists, spongia, coelenterata and coelomata: lower worms, annelids, their hyponeurian descendents (arthropods, molluses) and epineurian descedents echinoderms and protochordates (Stomochordata, Tunicata, Cephalochordata). The structure, functions and stereotypes of protonephridia and metanephridia and of substitutive (vicarious) emonctory organs (nephrocytes and peritoneal cells) are studied in coelomatic invertebrates. Their evolution appears to be directioned to localize within the limits of the emonctory subsystem. During their evolution, some nephridial functions are performed by the vicarious emonctory organs. The evolution of the subsystem in invertebrates appears to be based on stable characters and their relationships with variable features.

Relationships between specialized cells, capillaries, and intermediary cytofibrillary elements. VIIIth note. A systematization attempt of the RHS in the light of Bertalanffy's theory of systems.

Phylogenetic data concerning the circulatory and the macrophagic systems in epineural invertebrates and in vertebrates are exposed. On this basis, the taking into consideration of a large general and complex system of defence is proposed as a work hypothesis. Within this system, two subsystems of the IInd order are described: the 1st represented by the epithelial organs, and the IInd by the immunogenic ones. In the first case, the epithelial cell populations (epithelial organs from the IInd step of author's classification, Vth note) play a dominant role in the local defence. The stroma and capillaries are dominating the defence process in the organs with covering epithelia (IIIrd step), in which the endothelia, the pericapillary membranes and the histiocytes are intervening; the antibody formation is missing. The immunogenic subsystem--the most evoluted form of the antiblastic and antinfection defence--comprises all the organs and formations of the old RHS. This IInd order subsystem is subdivided into two other subsystems of the IIIrd order: one comprises the primary lymphoid organs and the other, the secondary ones. Within the first began the differentiation; within the second, differentiation of cells participating in the cellular and humoral immunity is improved. Thus, each subsystem of the IIIrd order is subdivided into immunocompetent and non-immunocompetent cell lines (subsystems of the IVth order). Some reactions interpreted as expressions of cellular exchanges (open systems) providing the division and differentiation, especially of T and B lymphocytes, are described. The various terminology still used for the old RES and RHS is criticized and a new provisional terminology is proposed.

Relationships between specialized cells, capillaries, and intermediary cytofibrillary elements. VIIth note. Epitheliocapillary relationships in hypothysis and thyroid during experimentally conditioned immunity.

The participation of the thyroid and of the anterior hypophysis during a complex process of experimentally conditioned immunity was studied in order to establish the concrete modalities of integration of these glands by the central integrative mechanisms. Quantitative microscopy, mathematical and statistical methods, demonstrative graphs, a new mode of expression of correlation types between the phasic quantitative variations of the immune process, as well as a division of the anterior hypophysis into cell groups were used. These methods show that the hypophysis and the thyroid participate in the immunogenic processes with all their constituents (epithelia, mesenchymal cells, capillaries). The importance of the participation vary from one lot to the other. The epithelium dynamics dominated that of capillaries in the glandular organs belonging to the IInd organizational step (with reduced stroma), which allows the consideration of an epitheliocapillary stereotype of organs belonging to the IIIrd step (stroma-rich) described in the VIth note.

Relationships between specialized cells, capillaries, and intermediary cyto-fibrillar elements. Vth note. Organizational steps or levels of these relationships during their biological development.

The developmental analysis of the interrelations between specialized cells, capillaries, and intermediary cyto-fibrillar elements points out the existence of four organizational steps reflecting the gradual increase in complexity and diversity of animal structures and functions. The development of secretory and defence functions produces a dissociation of steps between the increase of the organizational level of the whole animal organism and the autonomy of organizational steps or organs. The steps are not immovable, but under some conditions the possibility of a mutation exists between the IInd and the IIIrd steps.

Relationships between specialized cells, capillaries and intermediary cyto-fibrillary stroma. Note 6. The capillary stereotype and the factors which influence it.

The human skin and the mammary gland in the woman and the man--all of them ectoblastic-origin tissues, rich in stromal structures and belonging to the IIIrd step of Mârza's classification (Vth note) -- were investigated using the method of the microscopic conventional fields. The normal skin (Ist lot), the skin from the vicinity of basaliomatous nodules (II--A), of incipient basaliomatous nodules (II--B), of completely developed (II--C), of the skin during irradiation (II--D) and after irradiation (II--E), as well as the pemphigus skin were studied. In the woman the mammary gland was investigated in the little girl (GMF), in the adult nonpregnant woman (GMA), during the first trimester of pregnancy (GMG), during lactation (GML), during climacterium (GMM), in glandular carcinomas of the adult female (GMAC) and during menopause (GMMC). In the man, the normal gland (GMB) and the hypertrophied one (gynecomastia) (GMBH) were studied.