Higher unemployment benefits are associated with reduced drug overdose mortality in the United States before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVES: Overdose mortality rates in the United States remain critical to population health. Economic , such as unemployment, are noted risk factors for drug overdoses. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated economic hardship; as a result, the US government enacted income protection programs in conjunction with existing unemployment insurance (UI) to dampen COVID-19-related economic consequences. We investigate whether UI, operationalized as the weekly benefit allowance (WBA) replacement rate, is negatively associated with drug-related overdoses. METHODS: Data from the pooled 2014-2020 Detailed Restricted Mortality files for all counties from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, restricted to people ≥18 years of age, aggregated at the county-quarter level (n = 89,914). We included any fatal drug, opioid, and stimulant overdose. We modeled the association between WBA replacement rate (e.g., a greater proportion of weekly earnings replaced by UI) on each county-level age-adjusted mortality outcome using separate linear regression models during 2014-2020, pre-COVID (2014-2018), and post-COVID (2019-2020). We conducted sensitivity analyses using multi-level linear regression models. RESULTS: Results indicated that a more robust WBA replacement rate any drug (Risk Difference [RD]: -0.06, 95 % Confidence Interval [CI]: -0.08, -0.05), opioid (RD: -0.04, 95 % CI: -0.06, -0.03), and stimulant (RD: -0.03, 95 % CI: -0.04, -0.02) across the entire study period (2014-2020). A more robust WBA replacement rate was associated with fewer fatal drug, opioid and stimulant overdoses in the pre-COVID-19 period and on fatal any drug and stimulant overdoses in the COVID-19 period. CONCLUSIONS: Findings support the notion that income protection policies, such as robust UI, can have a supportive role in preventing fatal drug overdoses, calling for a broader discussion onthe role of the safety net programs to buffer drug-related harms.

Partner incarceration, maternal substance use, and the mediating role of social support: A longitudinal analysis using the future of families and child wellbeing study.

INTRODUCTION: The United States is responsible for the highest incarceration rate globally. This study aimed to explore the impact of partner incarceration on maternal substance use and whether social support mediates the relationship between partner incarceration and maternal substance use. METHODS: Using data from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a longitudinal cohort following new parents and children, this analysis quantifies the relationship between paternal incarceration and maternal substance use (N = 2823). We analyzed maternal responses in years 3 (2001-2003), 5 (2003-2006), 9 (2007-2010), and 15 (2014-2017). We explored the role of financial support and emergency social support as potential mediators. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was employed to construct support-related mediators. We modeled the impact of partner incarceration and maternal substance use using generalized estimating equations (GEE) to account for repeated measures, adjusting for appropriate confounders (age of mother at child's birth, race, education, employment, and history of intimate partner violence). RESULTS: Nearly half (44.2%, N = 1247) of participants reported partner incarceration. Among mothers who experienced partner incarceration, the odds of reporting substance use were 110% greater than those who reported no partner incarceration (adjusted Odds Ratio [aOR]: 2.10; 95% Confidence Interval (CI):1.67-2.63). Financial support at year 5 accounted for 19.5% (95% CI: 6.03-33.06%) of the association between partner incarceration at year 3 and substance use at year 9; emergency social support at year 5 accounted for 6.4% (95% CI: 0.51-12.25%) of the association between partner incarceration and substance use at year 9. Neither financial nor emergency social support at year 9 were significant mediators between partner incarceration at year 3 and substance use at year 15. CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate that partner incarceration impacts maternal substance use. Financial and emergency support may partially mediate this relationship in the short term, which has important implications for families disrupted by mass incarceration.

Development and design of a mobile application for prescription opioid clinical decision-making: a feasibility study in New York City, USA.

OBJECTIVES: Excessive opioid prescribing is a contributing factor to the opioid epidemic in the USA. We aimed to develop, implement and evaluate the usability of a clinical decision-making mobile application (app) for opioid prescription after surgery. METHODS: We developed two clinical decision trees, one for opioid prescription after adult laparoscopic cholecystectomy and one for posterior spinal fusion surgery in adolescents. We developed a mobile app incorporating the two algorithms with embedded clinical decision-making, which was tested by opioid prescribers. A survey collected prescription intention prior to app use and participants' evaluation. Participants included opioid prescribers for patients undergoing (1) laparoscopic cholecystectomy in adults or (2) posterior spinal fusion in adolescents with idiopathic scoliosis. RESULTS: Eighteen healthcare providers were included in this study (General Surgery: 8, Paediatrics: 10). Intended opioid prescription before app use varied between departments (General Surgery: 0-10 pills (mean=5.9); Paediatrics: 6-30 pills (mean=20.8)). Intention to continue using the app after using the app multiple times varied between departments (General Surgery: N=3/8; Paediatrics: N=7/10). The most reported reason for not using the app is lack of time. CONCLUSIONS: In this project evaluating the development and implementation of an app for opioid prescription after two common surgeries with different prescription patterns, the surgical procedure with higher intended and variable opioid prescription (adolescent posterior spinal fusion surgery) was associated with participants more willing to use the app. Future iterations of this opioid prescribing intervention should target surgical procedures with high variability in both patients' opioid use and providers' prescription patterns.

Perceptions of peer and parental attitudes toward substance use and actual adolescent substance use: The impact of adolescent-confidant relationships.

Objective: While peer influence is a well-documented risk factor for adolescent substance use, it remains unclear whether peer or parental attitudes have greater impact, and if this relationship is moderated by having a confidant and the relationship between adolescents and their confidant. Method: Pooled (2015-2018) National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) data on adolescents (12-17 years) were used. Perceived peer and parental disapproval of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use were dichotomized. We assessed associations between disapproval and past-month tobacco (N = 51,352), alcohol (N = 51,407), and marijuana use (N = 51,355) using separate multivariable logistic regression models. We explored effect modification by the presence of a confidant, parental vs. non-parental disapproval, and peer vs. non-peer confidant relationship. Results: Peer and parental disapproval, presence of any confidant, and identifying a parental confidant were consistently protective against substance use; identifying a peer confidant increased odds of use across substances. For marijuana use, peer disapproval (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 0.07, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.06, 0.08) was more protective than parental disapproval (aOR: 0.13, 95% CI: 0.12, 0.15). The joint presence of peer/parental disapproval and any confidant decreased the odds of substance use beyond the individual effects of peer/parental disapproval and having a confidant. However, having a peer confidant attenuated the protective association between peer/parental disapproval and tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use. Conclusions: Both peer and parental relationships are salient when considering the social context of adolescent substance use and should be considered when studying the effects of perceived disapproval.

The estimated impact of state-level support for expanded delivery of substance use disorder treatment during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: To prevent COVID-19 transmission, some United States (US) federal regulations on substance use disorder (SUD) treatment were suspended in March 2020. This study aimed to quantify the extent of state-level policy uptake and the potential number of people with SUD affected by these policy changes across the US, as well as to assess if policy uptake correlated with rates of people with SUD already in treatment or needing treatment. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis of policies implemented as of April 13, 2020. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: A total of 50 US states and the District of Columbia MEASUREMENTS: State-level implementation of: oral schedule II controlled substances emergency prescription, extended take-home doses for medication for opioid use disorders (MOUD), home-delivery of take-home medications, telemedicine for schedule II-IV prescriptions, telemedicine for buprenorphine prescribing initiation, and waiver of out-of-state Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) registration. Rates per 100 000 population of: adults in treatment for SUD, MOUD treatment at facilities with opioid treatment programs, SUD based on Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-IV criteria, and needing, but not receiving treatment. FINDINGS: Half of the states (n = 24) enacted no policies, leaving ~460 955 people in treatment and 114 370 people on MOUD pre-pandemic uncovered by any policy expansion. Only telemedicine for buprenorphine initiation was marginally associated with pre-pandemic rate of SUD treatment (OR = 1.003, 95% CI = [1.001, 1.006]) and rate of MOUD therapy (OR = 1.006, 95% CI = [1.002, 1.011]) in univariable analysis, but these associations were no longer significant when controlling for state-level demographics. No policies were associated with state-wide SUD prevalence or rate of unmet treatment need (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Twenty-four United States states did not implement at least one federal policy for substance use disorder treatment expansion as of April 2020, leaving approximately half a million people in treatment pre-pandemic potentially without access to treatment or risking exposure to COVID-19 to continue in-person therapies.

Corrigendum: Substance Use in Mild-COVID-19 Patients: A Retrospective Study.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.634396.].

Prescription Opioid Laws and Opioid Dispensing in US Counties: Identifying Salient Law Provisions With Machine Learning.

BACKGROUND: Hundreds of laws aimed at reducing inappropriate prescription opioid dispensing have been implemented in the United States, yet heterogeneity in provisions and their simultaneous implementation have complicated evaluation of impacts. We apply a hypothesis-generating, multistage, machine-learning approach to identify salient law provisions and combinations associated with dispensing rates to test in future research. METHODS: Using 162 prescription opioid law provisions capturing prescription drug monitoring program (PDMP) access, reporting and administration features, pain management clinic provisions, and prescription opioid limits, we used regularization approaches and random forest models to identify laws most predictive of county-level and high-dose dispensing. We stratified analyses by overdose epidemic phases-the prescription opioid phase (2006-2009), heroin phase (2010-2012), and fentanyl phase (2013-2016)-to further explore pattern shifts over time. RESULTS: PDMP patient data access provisions most consistently predicted high-dispensing and high-dose dispensing counties. Pain management clinic-related provisions did not generally predict dispensing measures in the prescription opioid phase but became more discriminant of high dispensing and high-dose dispensing counties over time, especially in the fentanyl period. Predictive performance across models was poor, suggesting prescription opioid laws alone do not strongly predict dispensing. CONCLUSIONS: Our systematic analysis of 162 law provisions identified patient data access and several pain management clinic provisions as predictive of county prescription opioid dispensing patterns. Future research employing other types of study designs is needed to test these provisions' causal relationships with inappropriate dispensing and to examine potential interactions between PDMP access and pain management clinic provisions. See video abstract at, http://links.lww.com/EDE/B861.

Post-infection depressive, anxiety and post-traumatic stress symptoms: A prospective cohort study in patients with mild COVID-19.

BACKGROUND: It remains unclear whether COVID-19 is associated with psychiatric symptoms during or after the acute illness phase. Being affected by the disease exposes the individual to an uncertain prognosis and a state of quarantine. These factors can predispose individuals to the development of mental symptoms during or after the acute phase of the disease. There is a need for prospective studies assessing psychiatric symptoms in COVID-19 patients in the post-infection period. METHODS: In this prospective cohort study, nasopharyngeal swabs for COVID-19 tests were collected at patients' homes under the supervision of trained healthcare personnel. Patients who tested positive for COVID-19 and were classified as mild cases (N = 895) at treatment intake were further assessed for the presence of psychiatric symptoms (on average, 56.6 days after the intake). We investigated the association between the number of COVID-19 symptoms at intake and depressive, anxiety and post-traumatic symptoms approximately two months later, adjusting for previous mental health status, time between baseline and outcome, and other confounders. Multivariate logistic regression and generalized linear models were employed for categorical and continuous outcomes, respectively. RESULTS: A clinically significant level of depressive, anxiety and post-traumatic stress symptoms were reported by 26.2% (N = 235), 22.4% (N = 201), and 17.3% (N = 155) of the sample. Reporting an increased number of COVID-related symptoms was associated with the presence of clinically significant levels of depressive (aOR = 1.059;95%CI = 1.002-1.119), anxiety (aOR = 1.072;95%CI = 1.012-1.134), and post-traumatic stress (aOR = 1.092;95%CI = 1.024-1.166) symptoms. Sensitivity analyses supported findings for both continuous and categorical measures. CONCLUSION: Exposure to an increased number of COVID-19 symptoms may be associated with depressive, anxiety and post-traumatic symptoms after the acute phase of the disease. These patients should be monitored for the development of psychiatric symptoms after COVID-19 treatment discharge. Early interventions, such as brief interventions of psychoeducation on coping strategies, could benefit these individuals.

Substance Use in Mild-COVID-19 Patients: A Retrospective Study.

Background: There is a need for prospective studies investigating substance use variations in mild COVID-19 patients. These individuals represent the majority of patients affected by the disease and are routinely treated at home, facing periods of quarantine. Methods: This was a retrospective cohort study. All people who tested positive for COVID-19 and classified as mild cases (i.e., no alarm sign/symptom, no need for in-person consultation) during the treatment in the public health system of a Brazilian city with around 160,000 inhabitants were monitored by phone for all the COVID-19 symptoms listed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) during the active phase of the disease (i.e., no longer experiencing symptoms, up to 14 days in mild cases). After this phase (median = 108 days after intake, IQR = 76-137), we asked these patients who were classified as experiencing mild COVID-19 (n = 993) about last-month substance use in three time-points: pre-COVID, just after COVID-19 acute phase (post-COVID acute phase) and in the period before survey (post-COVID follow-up phase). Results: The number of COVID-19 symptoms was not associated with pre- or post-infection substance use. Pre-COVID alcohol and non-medical benzodiazepine use were associated with specific COVID-19 symptoms. However, sensitivity analyses showed that such associations could be explained by previous psychiatric and medical profiles. Alcohol and tobacco use decreased and non-medical analgesics increased in the post-COVID acute phase. However, just alcohol use remained lower in the post-COVID follow-up period. Higher pre-COVID levels of tobacco and alcohol were associated with post-COVID follow-up cannabis and non-medical analgesic use, respectively. Non-medical benzodiazepine use had positive and negative bi-directional associations with cannabis and non-medical analgesic use, respectively. Conclusion: We were not able to find specific associations between substance use and COVID-19 symptomatology in the present study. Patients with mild COVID-19 should be monitored for substance use in the post-COVID-19 period, and preventive interventions for non-medical analgesic use should be implemented. Focused preventive interventions increasing the perceived risks of cannabis and non-medical benzodiazepine and analgesic use among people experiencing mild COVID-19 that reported previous substance use could be useful.

Investigating the effect of national government physical distancing measures on depression and anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic through meta-analysis and meta-regression.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 physical distancing measures can potentially increase the likelihood of mental disorders. It is unknown whether these measures are associated with depression and anxiety. OBJECTIVES: To investigate meta-analytic global levels of depression and anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic and how the implementation of mitigation strategies (i.e. public transportation closures, stay-at-home orders, etc.) impacted such disorders. DATA SOURCES: PubMed, MEDLINE, Web of Science, BIOSIS Citation Index, Current Content Connect, PsycINFO, CINAHL, medRxiv, and PsyArXiv databases for depression and anxiety prevalences; Oxford Covid-19 Government Response Tracker for the containment and closure policies indexes; Global Burden of Disease Study for previous levels of depression and anxiety. STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Original studies conducted during COVID-19 pandemic, which assessed categorical depression and anxiety, using PHQ-9 and GAD-7 scales (cutoff ⩾10). PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTIONS: General population, healthcare providers, students, and patients. National physical distancing measures. STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS: Meta-analysis and meta-regression. RESULTS: In total, 226 638 individuals were assessed within the 60 included studies. Global prevalence of both depression and anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic was 24.0% and 21.3%, respectively. There were differences in the prevalence of both anxiety and depression reported across regions and countries. Asia (17.6% and 17.9%), and China (16.2% and 15.5%) especially, had the lowest prevalence of both disorders. Regarding the impact of mitigation strategies on mental health, only public transportation closures increased the prevalence of anxiety, especially in Europe. LIMITATIONS: Country-level data on physical distancing measures and previous anxiety/depression may not necessarily reflect local (i.e. city-specific) contexts. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF KEY FINDINGS: Mental health concerns should not be viewed only as a delayed consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic, but also as a concurrent epidemic. Our data provide support for policy-makers to consider real-time enhanced mental health services, and increase initiatives to foster positive mental health outcomes.

Predictors of COVID-19 testing rates: A cross-country comparison.

OBJECTIVES: Cross-country comparisons of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) have largely been applied to mortality analyses. The goal of this analysis is to explore predictors of COVID-19 testing through cross-country comparisons, to better inform international health policies. METHODS: Testing and case-based data were amassed from Our World in Data, and information regarding predictors was gathered from the World Bank. We investigate Human Development Index (HDI), health expenditure, universal health coverage (UHC), urban population, service industry workers (%), and air pollution as predictors. We explored testing data through July 31, 2020, or most recently available, using case-indexing methods, which involve synchronizing countries by date of first reported COVID-19 case as an index date and normalizing to the cumulative tests 25 days post-index date. Three multivariable linear regression models were built in a stepwise fashion to explore the association between the indexed number of COVID-19 tests and HDI scores. RESULTS: A total of 86 countries were included in the final analytical sample, excluding countries with missing data. HDI and urban population were found to be significantly associated with testing levels. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that social conditions and government capacity remain consistently salient in the consideration of testing rates. International efforts to assist low-HDI countries are needed to support the global COVID-19 response.

Correlates of social isolation among people living with HIV in British Columbia, Canada.

Our study aims to define and identify correlates of social isolation among people living with HIV (PLHIV). The Longitudinal Investigation into Supportive and Ancillary health services (LISA) study provided a cross-sectional analytic sample of 996 PLHIV in British Columbia, Canada (sampled between 2007 and 2010). Individuals marginalized by socio-structural inequities were oversampled; sampling bias was addressed through inverse probability of participation weighting. Through latent class analysis, three groups were identified: Socially Connected (SC) (n = 364, 37%), Minimally Isolated (MI) (n = 540, 54%) and Socially Isolated (SI) (n = 92, 9%). Correlates of the SI and MI classes, determined through multivariable multinomial regression using the SC class as a reference, include: recent violence (aOR 1.61, 95%CI 1.28-2.02 [MI vs. SC]; aOR 2.04, 95%CI 1.41-2.96 [SI vs. SC]) and a mental health diagnosis (aOR 1.50, 95% CI 1.31-1.72 [MI vs. SC]; aOR 1.43, 95%CI 1.11-1.83 [SI vs. SC]). Women (aOR 0.47; 95%CI 0.32-0.68 [SI vs. SC]), individuals of Indigenous ancestry (aOR 0.59; 95%CI 0.40-0.87 [SI vs. SC]) and people identifying as gay or lesbian (aOR 0.37; 95%CI 0.26-0.52 [SI vs. SC]) were less likely to experience isolation. These findings highlight the importance of supporting communities fostering connectedness and identifies populations susceptible to isolation.

Social Isolation and Mortality Among People Living with HIV in British Columbia, Canada.

Social isolation, a risk factor for poor health within the general population, may be exacerbated by unique challenges faced by people living with HIV (PLHIV). This analysis examines the association between social isolation and all-cause mortality among a cohort of PLHIV experiencing multiple social vulnerabilities. The analytical sample included 936 PLHIV ≥ 19 years, living in British Columbia, Canada, and enrolled in the Longitudinal Investigation into Supportive and Ancillary Health Services (LISA) Study (2007-2010). Participants were classified as Socially Connected (SC), Minimally Isolated (MI) or Socially Isolated (SI) via latent class analysis. Cross-sectional survey data was linked to longitudinal clinical data from a provincial HIV treatment database. Mortality was assessed longitudinally up to and including December 31st, 2017. Through multivariable logistic regression, an association between SI and all-cause mortality was found (adjusted OR: 1.48; 95% CI 1.08, 2.01). These findings emphasize the need to mitigate effects of social isolation among PLHIV.

Loneliness and self-rated physical health among gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men in Vancouver, Canada.

BACKGROUND: Due to stigma and discrimination, gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men (gbMSM) potentially carry a heightened burden of loneliness. This analysis investigates loneliness among gbMSM and its relationship with self-rated physical health, along with the mediating effect of depression. METHODS: Participants were recruited using respondent-driven sampling into the Momentum Health Study (February 2012-February 2015) with follow-up visits occurring every 6 months till February 2018. Using computer-assisted self-interviews, measures of loneliness were assessed using a 6-item Loneliness Scale for Emotional and Social Loneliness (lonely vs not lonely). Current physical health was self-assessed (poor, fair, good, very good or excellent). A multivariable generalised linear-mixed model with a logit link function was used to examine the relationship between loneliness and self-rated physical health. We further investigated the mediating effect of depressive symptomatology on this relationship via the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. RESULTS: Of the 770 participants included, we found that 61% (n=471) experienced loneliness at baseline. Of the 674 (88%) who reported good/very good/excellent physical health, 59% (n=391) reported loneliness, compared with 87% (n=80) of those in poor/fair self-rated physical health who reported feeling lonely. After adjustment for confounding, loneliness was associated with poor self-rated physical health (adjusted OR 1.71; 95% CI 1.13 to 2.60). Depressive symptomatology was found to partially mediate this relationship. CONCLUSION: There may be a need for the integration of social, mental and physical health programming, targeted towards gbMSM, to alleviate the degree of loneliness experienced and its co-occurrence with poor self-rated physical health.