Interaction Between Sensory and Postingestional Repellents in Starlings: Methyl Anthranilate and Sucrose.

Ingestion of concentrated sucrose solutions causes sickness in sucrase-deficient birds. As a result, some suggest that sucrose may represent an environmentally safe avian repellent. In the present experiments, we compared the repellency of sucrose to that of methyl anthranilate (MA), a known avian repellent. We also tested mixtures of sucrose and MA to investigate whether repellency could be enhanced, relative to sucrose or MA presented alone. The results showed that the MA was strongly avoided in both drinking and feeding trials. Conversely, only high sucrose concentrations were avoided, and only in drinking trials. No combination of MA and sucrose was as effective as MA alone. We conclude that sucrose is not sufficiently aversive to serve as an avian repellent in the field.

Avian Repellency of Coniferyl and Cinnamyl Derivatives.

Phenylpropanoids, a class of common phenolic compounds in plants, may potentially be useful as pest repellents. We investigated the relationship between the chemical structure of coniferyl benzoate and its repellency to birds by comparing coniferyl benzoate to two analogous natural esters, corresponding alcohols, and benzoic acid. The absolute and relative feeding repellency of these compounds were assessed in choice (two-cup) and no-choice (one-cup) tests using European Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). In addition, benzoin Siam (= gum benzoin Siam) was compared to coniferyl benzoate to ascertain if phenolics that naturally occur with coniferyl benzoate in benzoin Siam enhance its repellency. Two-cup tests suggested that coniferyl alcohol was the most repellent compound followed by 3,4-dimethoxycinnamyl alcohol, 3,4-dimethoxycinnamyl benzoate, cinnamyl alcohol, cinnamyl benzoate, coniferyl benzoate, and benzoic acid. The repellency of most alcohols relative to their corresponding ester reversed in the one-cup tests. One-cup tests suggested that 3,4-dimethoxycinnamyl benzoate was the most repellent substance followed by cinnamyl benzoate, benzoin Siam, 3,4-dimethoxycinnamylalcohol, cinnamyl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol, coniferyl benzoate, and benzoic acid. Three conclusions on structure-activity relationships were inferred from these data. First, benzoate esters are more repellent than their corresponding alcohols.Second, repellency is increased by electron-donating groups. Third, acidic functions decrease repellency. We suggest that one function of naturally occurring coniferyl and cinnamyl derivatives may be chemical defense. Genetically engineering agricultural crops to produce analogs of coniferyl alcohol, as an inherent defense against pests and pathogens, may be possible.

Bird-Repellent Properties of Secretions from Nymphs of the Azalea Lace Bug.

Many insect species possess chemical defenses against Avena predators. Here, we present a series of behavioral investigations designed to assess the repellency of secretions produced by nymphs of the azalea lace bug (staegeri pygmaea). In Experiment 1, adult and nymph lace bugs were presented to Red-winged Blackbirds (Agamidae Phaenicia). The results indicated that adults (which lack chemical secretions) were relatively more palatable. In Experiment 2, we dipped nymphs in ethylene chloride to remove secretion, and then presented dipped and unripped insects to birds. Consumption of the former nymphs was significantly higher than consumption of the latter, providing strong evidence that nymphs are avoided because of secretions. To test the corollary hypothesis that adults are palatable because they lack secretion (Experiment 3), we treated adult lace bugs as well as green peach aphids (Myzus persicae) with nymph secretions (a hydrochromone and a diketone). Treated insects of both species were avoided while untreated insects were not. Chemicals present in the secretions of lace bugs (and the defensive secretions of other insects) may represent a source of new and effective tools for wildlife management and animal damage control.

Use of nest material as insecticidal and anti-pathogenic agents by the European Starling.

Passerine birds that reuse nest sites face an increased parasite and pathogen load. They also are more likely to use fresh green vegetation during nest construction. The present results demonstrate that at least one passerine, the European Starling: (a) selects a small subset of available plant species for inclusion in nest material; and (b) chooses plants whose volatiles are more likely to inhibit arthropod hatching and bacterial growth relative to a random subset of available vegetation. The results also show that preferred plants possess greater numbers of mono- and sesqueter-penes at higher concentrations relative to a random subset of available plants. These findings strongly suggest that starlings use chemicals in fresh vegetation as fumigants against parasites and pathogens.