Utility of the Language Use Inventory in Young Children at Elevated Likelihood of Autism.

PURPOSE: The aims of this study were (a) to evaluate the convergent validity of the Language Use Inventory (LUI) with measures of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms, language, and social skills and (b) to assess discriminant validity of the LUI with measures of nonlanguage skills, including daily living skills and motor development. METHOD: This study sample included participants from a longitudinal study (n = 239) of infant siblings with elevated familial likelihood of ASD and lower familial likelihood. Assessment measures completed at 36 months included the LUI, the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Second Edition (ADOS-2), the Mullen Scales of Early Learning, and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales-Second Edition. Bivariate Pearson correlations were estimated between ADOS-2 comparison scores and four language and social skills measures. Additional correlations were estimated between LUI total scores and standard scores from nonlanguage measures. A series of Fisher's Z transformations were applied to evaluate whether bivariate correlations were significantly different. RESULTS: All four language and social skill measures were moderately to strongly associated with each other and ASD symptom severity scores. The correlation between ADOS-2 comparison scores and LUI total scores was significantly stronger than ADOS-2 correlations with all other measures. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide support for the LUI as a feasible, pragmatic language-targeted instrument for inclusion in early developmental evaluations prompted by language concerns. Administration of the LUI may accelerate earlier referral for a comprehensive assessment of ASD symptoms. Given the high correlation with ADOS-2 scores, an LUI total score in a clinical range of concern may encourage a clinician to refer families for a full diagnostic evaluation of ASD.

Longitudinal pathways of maltreated young children: Family stress processes and adverse childhood experiences.

An important issue associated with at-risk families in the child welfare system is the impact of familial stress processes on child developmental outcomes. The present study used the family stress model (FSM) to examine the impact of economic hardship, economic pressure, caregiver emotional distress, caregiver/partner conflict, caregiver harsh parenting, and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) on child's cognitive, behavioral, and social outcomes. Data from the National Survey on Child and Adolescent Well-Being II were utilized, and 1,363 children (709 male, 654 female) ages 2-18 months (at Wave 1) were included in the present study. Three waves of data were analyzed in the longitudinal structural equation model, with economic hardship and economic pressure at Wave 1, caregiver emotional distress, caregiver/partner conflict, and caregiver harsh parenting at Wave 2 predicting ACEs and child outcomes at Wave 3. Results were overall consistent with the FSM in that economic hardship led to economic pressure, and caregiver emotional distress and caregiver/partner conflict led to harsh parenting, which subsequently led to ACEs. ACEs led to negative child cognitive outcomes, and for female children only, ACEs led to internalizing/externalizing behaviors. The results demonstrate that over time, familial stress processes led to negative child developmental outcomes in this sample. Study results also highlight the inextricable connection between mild harsh parenting behaviors and more severe forms of maltreatment on child outcomes. The prevention of child maltreatment is emphasized, with a specific focus on increasing positive parenting behaviors and decreasing caregiver emotional distress and caregiver/partner conflict. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

A new look at teacher interactional quality: Profiles of individual teacher-child relationship and classroom teaching quality among Head Start students.

Preschool teachers' relationships with children are a critical component of classroom quality. We draw from a sample of N=2,114 children attending Head Start to examine child-centered profiles of experiences across two dimensions of classroom interaction quality that are often considered separately, individual teacher-child closeness and conflict and classroom-level instructional and emotional support. Findings reveal considerable heterogeneity in Head Start children's experiences, as the profiles differed on individual conflict, and classroom emotional and instructional support. The largest profile was characterized by a positive emotional climate and low instructional support. Higher teacher distress was associated with the highest quality and the highest conflict profiles. The results also revealed early evidence for gender and race and ethnicity-based disadvantages in Head Start classroom experiences.

Central Executive and Default Mode Networks: An Appraisal of Executive Function and Social Skill Brain-Behavior Correlates in Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Atypical connectivity patterns have been observed for individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), particularly across the triple-network model. The current study investigated brain-behavior relationships in the context of social skills and executive function profiles for ASD youth. We calculated connectivity measures from diffusion tensor imaging using Bayesian estimation and probabilistic tractography. We replicated prior structural equation modeling of behavioral measures with total default mode network (DMN) connectivity to include comparisons with central executive network (CEN) connectivity and CEN-DMN connectivity. Increased within-CEN connectivity was related to metacognitive strengths. Our findings indicate behavior regulation difficulties in youth with ASD may be attributable to impaired connectivity between the CEN and DMN and social skill difficulties may be exacerbated by impaired within-DMN connectivity.

Association Between Autism Spectrum Disorders and Cardiometabolic Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Importance: Although the increased risk of obesity among individuals with autism has been well established, evidence on the association between autism, cardiometabolic disorders, and obesity remains inconclusive. Objective: To examine the association between autism spectrum disorders and cardiometabolic diseases in a systematic review and meta-analysis. Data Sources: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ProQuest, Embase, and Ovid databases were searched from inception through July 31, 2022, without restrictions on date of publication or language. Study Selection: Observational or baseline data of interventional studies reporting the prevalence of cardiometabolic risk factors (ie, diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, atherosclerotic macrovascular disease) among children and/or adults with autism and matched with participants without autism were included. Data Extraction and Synthesis: Screening, data extraction, and quality assessment were performed independently by at least 2 researchers. DerSimonian-Laird random-effects meta-analyses were performed using the meta package in R. Main Outcomes and Measures: Relative risks (RRs) of diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and atherosclerotic macrovascular disease among individuals with autism were the primary outcomes. Secondary outcomes included the RR of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, heart disease, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease. Results: A total of 34 studies were evaluated and included 276 173 participants with autism and 7 733 306 participants without autism (mean [range] age, 31.2 [3.8-72.8] years; pooled proportion [range] of female individuals, 47% [0-66%]). Autism was associated with greater risks of developing diabetes overall (RR, 1.57; 95% CI, 1.23-2.01; 20 studies), type 1 diabetes (RR, 1.64; 95% CI, 1.06-2.54; 6 studies), and type 2 diabetes (RR, 2.47; 95% CI, 1.30-4.70; 3 studies). Autism was also associated with increased risks of dyslipidemia (RR, 1.69; 95% CI, 1.20-2.40; 7 studies) and heart disease (RR, 1.46; 95% CI, 1.42-1.50; 3 studies). Yet, there was no significantly associated increased risk of hypertension and stroke with autism (RR, 1.22; 95% CI, 0.98-1.52; 12 studies; and RR, 1.19; 95% CI, 0.63-2.24; 4 studies, respectively). Meta-regression analyses revealed that children with autism were at a greater associated risk of developing diabetes and hypertension compared with adults. High between-study heterogeneity was a concern for several meta-analyses. Conclusions and Relevance: Results suggest that the associated increased risk of cardiometabolic diseases should prompt clinicians to vigilantly monitor individuals with autism for potential contributors, signs of cardiometabolic disease, and their complications.

Predicting Language in Children with ASD Using Spontaneous Language Samples and Standardized Measures.

This longitudinal study examined the degree to which standardized measures of language and natural language samples predicted later language usage in a heterogeneous sample of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and how this relationship is impacted by ASD severity and interventions. Participants with a diagnosis of ASD (N = 54, 41 males) completed standardized assessments of language and social functioning; natural language samples were transcribed from play-based interactions. Findings indicated that standardized language measures, natural language measures, and ADOS severity were each unique predictors of later lexical use. Intervention types also appeared to impact later language; in particular, participation in mainstream inclusion accounted for significant amounts of variance in children's mean length of utterance at T3.

Say that again: Quantifying patterns of production for children with autism using recurrence analysis.

The current research study characterized syntactic productivity across a range of 5-year-old children with autism and explored the degree to which this productivity was associated with standardized measures of language and autism symptomatology. Natural language samples were transcribed from play-based interactions between a clinician and participants with an autism diagnosis. Speech samples were parsed for grammatical morphemes and were used to generate measures of MLU and total number of utterances. We applied categorical recurrence quantification analysis, a technique used to quantify patterns of repetition in behaviors, to the children's noun-related and verb-related speech. Recurrence metrics captured the degree to which children repeated specific lexical/grammatical units (i.e., recurrence rate) and the degree to which children repeated combinations of lexical/grammatical units (i.e., percent determinism). Findings indicated that beyond capturing patterns shown in traditional linguistic analysis, recurrence can reveal differences in the speech productions of children with autism spectrum disorder at the lexical and grammatical levels. We also found that the degree of repeating noun-related units and grammatical units was related to MLU and ADOS Severity Score, while the degree of repeating unit combinations (e.g., saying "the big fluffy dog" or the determiner-adjective-adjective-noun construction multiple times), in general, was only related to MLU.

Mother-Infant Dyadic Synchrony in the NICU Context.

BACKGROUND: Dyadic synchrony is a co-constructed social process relating to the back and forth interactions between mothers and infants that are strongly associated with neurodevelopment, self-regulation, and attachment. In the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), this process may become interrupted because of the physiological state of the infant, the emotional state of the mother, and the physical environment of the NICU. PURPOSE: In applying Feldman's Biobehavioral Model of Synchrony, this empirical review deconstructs the process of dyadic synchrony in the NICU context and provides a conceptual approach to guide both research and clinical practice. METHODS: First, we examine the theoretical and empirical literature to explicate the primary structural and biophysiological components of synchrony and relate these constructs to the extant research on premature infants. Next, we synthesize the maternal, infant, and contextual factors that facilitate or inhibit the ontogenesis of dyadic synchrony in the NICU. The final section highlights the state of the science in dyadic synchrony in the NICU including gaps and recommendations for future research. FINDINGS: An empirical review synthesis presents a visual conceptual framework to illustrate multiple processes that depict maternal, infant, and contextual influences of mother-infant synchrony in the NICU. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE/RESEARCH: Despite the challenges posed to mother-infant relationships in the NICU, high-quality mother-infant interactions are possible, dyadic synchrony can emerge, and premature infants can develop secure attachments. Clinicians and researchers can apply this conceptual framework of mother-infant dyadic synchrony in the NICU to promote evidence-based research and clinical practice.

Explicating Child-Driven Patterns of Parent-Child Responsivity in Fragile Families: A Longitudinal Approach.

It has been well-established that development occurs in the context of a transactional framework, with bidirectional parent-child interactions influencing both proximal and distal outcomes. In particular, child vocabulary development is sensitive to parenting qualities including warmth, sensitivity, and control as well as parental stimulation including language input and access to learning enrichment activities. Similarly, these parenting qualities are influenced by and influence children's development of pro-social behaviors. Given the foundational role of both language and pro-social skills for academic achievement and the establishment of healthy relationships across the lifespan, a comprehensive understanding of the magnitude, stability, and reciprocity of such interactions across childhood has the potential to better inform early intervention and prevention practices and highlight risk and resilience factors. This study investigated the concurrent and successive transactional relationships between child pro-social behavior, child emergent language, and parenting qualities within a large, longitudinal sample. This study utilized Waves 3, 4, and 5 of the Fragile Families and Child Well Being Study (FFCWBS), corresponding to focal child age 3, 5, and 9 years, respectively. A series of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with full-information likelihood (FIML) estimation (n = 3,422) including child prosocial behavior, receptive vocabulary, and supportive parenting behaviors was tested and compared. Our findings indicate significant, positive associations over time between child pro-social behavior and receptive vocabulary, and parenting quality across all three stages of early child development. The steady decline in magnitude of these associations over time highlights the importance of synergistic parent-child interactions in toddlerhood as an early opportunity to propel these developmental outcomes and supportive parenting behaviors. Patterns of change in child pro-social behavior skills and parenting qualities remained positive and relatively stable, while observed growth in child receptive vocabulary skills increased in magnitude over time. Additional investigation of indirect effects specified the role of receptive vocabulary, as well as the bolstering role of prosocial behavior, in eliciting responsive parenting qualities over time.

Eye-Tracking in Infants and Young Children at Risk for Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review of Visual Stimuli in Experimental Paradigms.

Eye-tracking represents a sensitive, direct measure of gaze allocation and goal-directed looking behaviors that correspond to visual information processing. Clear definitions and standardization of research protocols to document the utility and feasibility of these methods are warranted. This systematic review provides an account of stimuli dimensions and experimental paradigms used in eye-tracking research for young children at risk for ASD published from 2005 through 2019. This review identifies variability in eye-tracking protocols and heterogeneity of stimuli used for eye-tracking as factors that undermine the value of eye-tracking as an objective, reliable screening tool. We underscore the importance of sharing eye-tracking stimuli to enhance replicability of findings and more importantly the need to develop a bank of publicly available, validated stimuli.

Language Growth in Young Children with Autism: Interactions Between Language Production and Social Communication.

Young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) present with a broad range of spoken language abilities, as well as delays in precursor skills such as gesture production and joint attention skills. While standardized assessments describe language strengths, the Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales (CSBS-DP) is a particularly robust measure as it additionally characterizes precise aspects of social communication. This study provides a unique contribution by assessing the interactional effects of CSBS-DP Social Composite performance with early language samples on later language outcomes. Our results indicate that multiple social communication elements significantly interact with early spoken language to predict later language. Our findings also highlight the transactional relationship between early spoken vocabulary and social communication skills that bolster language development growth.

Associations between child physical abuse potential, observed maternal parenting, and young children's emotion regulation: Is participation in Early Head Start protective?

Clinicians working with Early Head Start (EHS) families consider family well-being and positive parent-child relationships as foundational to school readiness. Understanding the links between risk factors and these dimensions of family engagement can inform clinical decision-making, as risk assessments are used to tailoring program services. The current study examined the associations between high risk, or potential, for child physical abuse and both parenting quality and children's emotion regulation (ER) during toddlerhood; EHS participation was examined as a buffer. The sample included EHS-eligible mothers of infants (N = 80) drawn from one site of the EHS Research and Evaluation Project. Associations were tested between mothers' potential for child physical abuse, measured during infancy, and observed maternal sensitivity, positive regard, harshness, and children's ER skills at child ages 1 and 2 years. Results indicated that high potential for child physical abuse was associated with lower positive regard at age 1 and lower ER skills at age 2. EHS participation operated as a buffer on each of these associations. Implications for screening for child physical abuse potential and the constructs it represents in clinical settings as well as how EHS can promote family engagement are discussed.

Los clínicos que trabajan con familias del Programa de Comienzo Temprano (Early Head Start - EHS) consideran el bienestar familiar y las positivas relaciones entre progenitor y niño como aspectos fundamentales para estar listo para la escuela (US DHHS, 2011). El poder comprender las conexiones entre los factores de riesgo y estas dimensiones de la participación familiar puede servir de base para la toma de decisiones clínicas, ya que las evaluaciones de riesgo se usan para amoldar los servicios del programa. El presente estudio examinó las asociaciones entre el alto riesgo, o riesgo potencial, del abuso físico del niño y tanto la calidad de la crianza como la regulación de la emoción por parte del niño durante la primera etapa de la niñez; se examinó la participación en EHS como mediadora. El grupo muestra incluía madres de infantes elegibles para EHS (N = 80) quienes formaban parte de un mismo Proyecto de Investigación y Evaluación del Programa de Comienzo Temprano. Se pusieron a prueba las asociaciones entre el potencial de las madres de abuso físico del niño, medidas durante la infancia, y las observaciones de sensibilidad materna, consideraciones positivas, dureza, y las habilidades de regulación de la emoción del niño a la edad de 1 y 2 años del niño. Los resultados indicaron que el alto potencial de abuso físico del niño estaba asociado con más bajas consideraciones positivas a la edad de 1 año, así como con las más bajas habilidades de regulación de la emoción a la edad de 2 años. La participación en EHS funcionó como mediadora en cada una de estas asociaciones. Se discuten las implicaciones para detectar el potencial de abuso físico del niño y la estructura que representa en escenarios clínicos, y también cómo EHS puede promover la participación familiar.

Les cliniciens travaillant avec des familles du programme américain de Early Head Start (EHS) familles considèrent le bien-être familial et des relations parent-enfants positives comme étant les fondations de la préparation au cadre scolaire (US DHHS, 2011). Le fait de comprendre les liens entre les facteurs de risque et ces dimensions de l'engagement familial peut informer la prise de décision clinique, comme les évaluations de risque sont utilisées pour adapter les services de programmes. Cette étude s'est penchée sur les liens entre le risque élevé, ou potentiel, de maltraitance physique de l'enfant et à la fois la qualité du parentage et la régulation d'émotion des enfants durant la petite enfance; la participation à l'EHS étant examinée comme tampon. L'échantillon a inclus des mères de nourrissons étant admissible à l'EHS (N = 80), tiré d'un site du Projet de Recherche et d'Evaluation du EHS. Les associations ont été testées entre le potentiel de maltraitance physique de l'enfant par les mères, mesuré durant la très petite enfance, et la sensibilité maternelle observée, l'égard positif, la dureté, et les compétences de régulation de l'émotion des enfants aux âges de 1 et 2 ans. Les résultats indiquent qu'un fort potentiel de maltraitance de l'enfant était lié à un égard positif plus bas à l'âge de 1 ans, et à des compétences de régulation de l'émotion moins élevées à l'âge de 2 ans. La participation à l'EHS a servi de tampon dans chacune de ces associations. Les implications pour le dépistage de potentiel de maltraitance physique de l'enfant et pour les constructions qu'il représente dans les contextes cliniques, ainsi que la manière dont l'EHS peut promouvoir un engagement familial sont discutées.

Characteristics of American Indian Female Caregivers on a Southwest American Indian Reservation.

American Indian (AI) caregivers have been excluded from national survey efforts. Drawing from a 2012 survey administered on the Hopi Reservation in northern Arizona, 20% of adults are caregivers. More information is needed to guide program development tailored to Hopi needs. In a University-Community collaboration, a 58 question survey was administered to self-identified caregivers of a family member about amount and type of care provided, difficulties, caregiver health, and desired support services. Characteristics of caregivers and their experiences were described. Forty-four (44) female Hopi caregivers were interviewed from June-October 2017, mean age of 59 years (± 12.6) with mean 5.5 year (± 4.4) history of providing care. Over 84% provided care to either a parent or grandparent. Most caregivers provided transportation (93.2%), housework (93.2%), and medical related care (72.7%). Caregivers stated they had difficulties with not having enough time for family and or friends (88.6%), financial burdens (75.0%), and not having enough time for themselves (61.4%). The most frequently identified difficulty was stress (45.5%). Caregivers would like additional services, with 76.7% asking for training. Over 77% would not consider placing their relative in an assisted living facility. Compared to national data, Hopi female caregivers are older, provide more care hours/week, more caregiving duties, and for a longer number of years. Stress is the most reported difficulty, although lower than national levels. As caregivers are resistant to placing the recipient in assisted living, educational efforts should focus on training caregivers to assist the care recipient and decreasing caregiver stress.

Characterizing Health Disparities in the Age of Autism Diagnosis in a Study of 8-Year-Old Children.

The diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is often delayed from the time of noted concerns to the actual diagnosis. The current study used child- and family-level factors to identify homogeneous classes in a surveillance-based sample (n = 2303) of 8-year-old children with ASD. Using latent class analysis, a 5-class model emerged and the class memberships were examined in relation to the child's median age at ASD diagnosis. Class 3, with known language delays and a high advantage socioeconomically had the lowest age of ASD diagnosis (46.74 months) in comparison to Classes 1 (64.99 months), 4 (58.14 months), and 5 (69.78 months) in this sample. Findings demonstrate sociodemographic and developmental disparities related to the age at ASD diagnosis.

Motherese, affect, and vocabulary development: dyadic communicative interactions in infants and toddlers.

Responsive parental communication during an infant's first year has been positively associated with later language outcomes. This study explores responsivity in mother-infant communication by modeling how change in guiding language between 7 and 11 months influences toddler vocabulary development. In a group of 32 mother-child dyads, change in early maternal guiding language positively predicted child language outcomes measured at 18 and 24 months. In contrast, a number of other linguistic variables - including total utterances and non-guiding language - did not correlate with toddler vocabulary development, suggesting a critical role of responsive change in infant-directed communication. We further assessed whether maternal affect during early communication influenced toddler vocabulary outcomes, finding that dominant affect during early mother-infant communications correlated to lower child language outcomes. These findings provide evidence that responsive parenting should not only be assessed longitudinally, but unique contributions of language and affect should also be concurrently considered in future study.

Vocalization patterns in young children with Down syndrome: Utilizing the language environment analysis (LENA) to inform behavioral phenotypes.

Children with Down syndrome (DS) are at higher risk for both delayed expressive language and poor speech intelligibility. The current study utilized the quantitative automated language environment analysis (LENA) to depict mother and child vocalizations and conversational patterns in the home of 43 children with DS, chronologically aged 24-64 months. Children with DS displayed fewer utterances than typically developing children; however, there was wide variability. Furthermore, children with DS did not show increased vocalization counts across their chronological ages. In contrast to previous findings, this study found that the mothers of children with DS had a reduced number of vocalizations. However, the vocalizations increased with age in comparison to mothers of typically developing children. Implications for targeted interventions that facilitate learning opportunities in bidirectional contexts for children with DS and their parents are discussed, with particular attention to quantify behavioral phenotypes utilizing a novel expressive language assessment tool.

A LONGITUDINAL, PERSON-CENTERED ANALYSIS OF EARLY HEAD START MOTHERS' PARENTING.

This study used a person-centered approach to examine stability and change in parenting typologies across early childhood. Profiles were associated within and across time with contextual covariates, including demographic characteristics, risk factors, and Early Head Start participation. Participants were drawn from the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project (N = 2, 876). Parenting profiles were identified based on observed parenting dimensions at 14, 24, and 36 months, and pre-Kindergarten (pre-K). Results suggested a four-profile solution at each time point: Supportive, Lukewarm (14 & 24 months)/Sufficient (36 months and pre-K), Harsh, and Detached. Supportive was the largest, most stable, and most likely transitioned into profile while Harsh and Detached represented rare profiles with moderate to low membership stability across time. Depression and family conflict emerged as important correlates of unsupportive parenting profiles both within and across time. Findings are discussed in terms of their relevance for both policy and implementation practices for low-income mothers with young children.

FAMILY CONFLICT MODERATES EARLY PARENT-CHILD BEHAVIORAL TRANSACTIONS.

The reciprocal transactions that shape early parent-child relationships are influenced by contextual stress, such as family conflict. Although family conflict is a salient stressor to the family system, few studies have considered how parent-child transactions vary according to exposure to family conflict. The present study examined how family conflict alters early parent-child behavioral transactions. We utilized three waves of data from a multisite longitudinal study of low-income families (N = 2, 876), child age 14 months, 24 months, and 36 months, to identify behavioral transactions of positive and negative maternal (supportiveness, negative regard) and child (engagement, negativity) behaviors. Results indicated that family conflict at 14 months diminished the positive association between maternal supportiveness and child engagement, and amplified the inverse association between maternal negativity and child engagement. Family conflict at 14 months also was associated with increased stability of child negativity and subsequent increased maternal negative regard at 36 months, in part via increases in 24-month child negativity. In sum, family conflict occurring early in childhood predicted and moderated behavioral transactions between young children and their mothers.

Grammatical Language Impairment in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Exploring Language Phenotypes Beyond Standardized Testing.

Linguistic and cognitive abilities manifest huge heterogeneity in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Some children present with commensurate language and cognitive abilities, while others show more variable patterns of development. Using spontaneous language samples, we investigate the presence and extent of grammatical language impairment in a heterogeneous sample of children with ASD. Findings from our sample suggest that children with ASD can be categorized into three meaningful subgroups: those with normal language, those with marked difficulty in grammatical production but relatively intact vocabulary, and those with more globally low language abilities. These findings support the use of sensitive assessment measures to evaluate language in autism, as well as the utility of within-disorder comparisons, in order to comprehensively define the various cognitive and linguistic phenotypes in this heterogeneous disorder.

Effect of speaker gaze on word learning in fragile X syndrome: a comparison with nonsyndromic autism spectrum disorder.

PURPOSE: This study examined use of a speaker's direction of gaze during word learning by boys with fragile X syndrome (FXS), boys with nonsyndromic autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and typically developing (TD) boys. METHOD: A fast-mapping task with follow-in and discrepant labeling conditions was administered. We expected that the use of speaker gaze would lead to participants selecting as the referent of the novel label the object to which they attended in follow-in trials and the object to which the examiner attended in the discrepant labeling trials. Participants were school-aged boys with FXS (n=18) or ASD (n=18) matched on age, intelligence quotient, and nonverbal cognition and younger TD boys (n=18) matched on nonverbal cognition. RESULTS: All groups performed above chance in both conditions, although the TD boys performed closest to the expected pattern. Boys with FXS performed better during follow-in than in discrepant label trials, whereas TD boys and boys with ASD did equally well in both trial types. The type of trial administered first influenced subsequent responding. Error patterns also distinguished the groups. CONCLUSION: The ability to utilize a speaker's gaze during word learning is not as well developed in boys with FXS or nonsyndromic ASD as in TD boys of the same developmental level.