The development and validation of an Army team resilience measure.

Given the demanding nature of its mission, the collective units of the Army, not just individual Soldiers, need to be able to withstand and adapt to a wide range of challenges. Therefore, it is important to be able to effectively assess resilience at the team-level and to understand the factors that can enable or diminish it. This article describes the development of a construct valid and psychometrically-sound measure of team resilience - the Team Resilience Scale (TRS). A theoretical framework of team resilience and related constructs is introduced. We then summarize the procedures for developing the TRS and related constructs, providing evidence of the content validity of the TRS. Finally, we assess the psychometric soundness and construct validity of the TRS in two Army field studies. Our analyses support the convergent validity of items and indicate that the measure can be used to examine three first-order dimensions of resilience (i.e., physical, affective, and cognitive) or as a single overall resilience composite. Results show the TRS was positively related to team performance in both samples and it co-varied with stressors and team actions. Practical recommendations for use of the measure and suggestions for future research are offered.

Managing unit human capital resources: Integrating insights from human resource management and unit leadership literatures.

Unit human capital resources (HCR) are vital to performance across organizational levels. Crucially, the benefits of unit HCR often hinge on resource access and effective resource management. Yet, how units manage HCR remains unclear. We first review findings from human resource management (HRM) and unit leadership literatures relating to unit HCR, which have evolved separately despite their shared goals. Using our review as a foundation, we offer an integrative model highlighting the ways unit leaders can leverage HRM practices and their leadership behaviors for the greatest impact on unit HCR. In so doing, we identify a potentially potent nexus for scholars of both disciplines to focus their integrative efforts on-unit leaders-given their responsibility for HRM practice delivery (e.g., implementing a job rotation program) and their own leadership behaviors (e.g., composing teams). We conclude by highlighting future research questions, opportunities for theoretical integration, and expanding empirical examination. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Indexing dynamic collective constructs using computer-aided text analysis: Construct validity evidence and illustrations featuring team processes.

Organizational processes have been widely recognized as both multilevel and dynamic, yet traditional methods of measurements limit our ability to model and understand such phenomena. Featuring a popular model of team processes advanced by Marks et al. (2001), we illustrate a method to use individuals' communications as construct valid unobtrusive measures of collective constructs occurring over time. Thus, the purpose of this investigation is to develop computer-aided text analysis (CATA) techniques that can score members' communications into valid team process measures. We apply a deductive content validity-based method to construct CATA dictionaries for Marks et al.'s dimensions. We then demonstrate their convergent validity with subject matter experts' (SMEs) hand-coded team communications and different SMEs' behaviorally anchored rating scales based on video recordings of team interactions, using multitrait-multimethod analyses in two samples. Using a third sample of paramedics performing a high-fidelity mass casualty incident exercise, we further demonstrate the convergent validity of the CATA and SME scorings of communications. We then model the relationships among processes across episodes using all three samples. Next, we test criterion-related validity using a longitudinal dual-discontinuous change growth modeling design featuring the paramedic CATA-scored team processes as related to a dynamic performance criterion. Finally, we integrate behavioral data from wearable sensor badges to illustrate how CATA can be scored at the individual level and then leveraged to model dynamic networks of team interactions. Implications, limitations, directions for the future research, and guidelines for the application of these techniques to other collective constructs are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Team leader coaching intervention: An investigation of the impact on team processes and performance within a surgical context.

We examined the impact of a team leader coaching intervention on episodic team processes (transition, action, interpersonal) and subsequent team performance outcomes within a surgical context. Specifically, we tested whether coaching team leaders (i.e., surgeons) on promoting effective teamwork facilitates team processes and two important outcomes-delays and distractions. Team processes were indexed using detailed observational protocols by subject-matter experts before and during surgeries. We employed an interrupted time series design whereby half of our participants received coaching midway through the longitudinal period and the remaining served as a quasi-control group. Team processes and outcomes were collected from multiple surgeries, per surgeon, both before and after the coaching intervention (N = 223 surgeries total). Results from a multilevel mixed-model (treatment vs. control, over time) structural equation model suggest that teams where the surgeon (team leader) received the coaching intervention exhibited higher-quality team transition processes. Transition processes related positively to subsequent action and interpersonal processes, which in turn yielded improvements in two different surgical team performance outcomes. Theoretical and applied implications are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Informal field-based learning and work design.

U.S. organizations continue to invest most of their learning budgets in formal training and development programs despite estimates that the majority of learning in the workplace happens informally. In this study we focus on informal field-based learning (IFBL), which represents individuals engaging in self-directed, intentional, and field-based development of their knowledge and skills. We build on the informal learning literature to advance a cross-level model of individual and job-level characteristics as influences on IFBL and subsequent changes in job performance. We tested our model using a sample of 378 health care employees who occupied 47 different jobs. The results showed promotion-focused individuals more readily engaged in IFBL, as moderated by job time pressures. Moreover, engaging in IFBL behaviors positively related to performance improvements in jobs that require greater updating and use of relevant information, as well as in jobs with relatively low decision making and problem-solving requirements. Exploratory subdimensional analyses revealed some interesting countervailing relationships between the feedback-seeking and vicarious-learning elements of IFBL. Results are discussed in terms of contingency relationships associated with IFBL behaviors and different job types, as well as theoretical and practical implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Team and individual influences on members' identification and performance per membership in multiple team membership arrangements.

Modern-day organizations often utilize team-based designs, and employees increasingly work simultaneously on multiple teams. These working arrangements have been referred to as multiple team memberships, and despite their prevalence, they have been the subject of relatively little research. Applying social identity theory as a theoretical lens, we advance a multilevel conceptual model that suggests both individual and team characteristics predict individuals' performance and satisfaction per membership, as mediated by their team identification per membership. We employed cross-classified effects analyses to model the combined influences of two sets of higher-level factors corresponding to individual (N = 96) and team characteristics (N = 82) on lower-level individual members' team identification and related outcomes per team membership (N = 320). Analyses of multisource temporally lagged data from software development professionals, who were assigned to work in multiple teams, yielded support for the combined influences of individual and team-level factors on individuals' identification with, and ultimately performance in and satisfaction with, their multiple team memberships. Implications for theory and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Sprinting to the finish: Toward a theory of Human Capital Resource Complementarity.

In traditional work contexts, factors such as individuals' general competencies are used to predict indices of their performance such as yearly performance appraisals. Whereas traditional approaches to predicting individuals' performance focus on differences between individuals, a considerable proportion of variability in performance is attributable to within-person sources. However, we submit that within-person variability in performance may also be attributable to the fact that people work in different contexts. Moreover, individual performance is often the result of unrecognized team contributions. Accordingly, we advance a Human Capital Resource Complementarity (HCRC) theory to explain the alignment of human capital resources with dynamic situational features, and to illustrate the influence of team collective competencies on the performance of individual members. We then empirically test HCRC theory-derived hypotheses using a sample of 169 cyclists from 22 teams across 18 stages of the centennial Tour de France. Our results suggest that individuals' specific competencies interact with situational characteristics to predict their performance variability over time, beyond that accounted for by their general competencies. Moreover, these effects are accentuated to the extent that teammates' competencies aligned with individual competencies in a given situation. Implications for future theory building, research, and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

The evolution of work team research since Hawthorne.

Since the Hawthorne studies of the 1920s and 1930s, there has been tremendous progress in the science and the practice of work group effectiveness. We chronicle the evolution of 3 schools of thought concerning work groups that spawned about the time of those studies. We highlight the different emphases of each perspective and how they eventually merged into an integrated view of teamwork. We also illustrate the disciplinary ebbs and flows of work group research over the past quarter century and how many different scholars from diverse institutions are currently contributing to the literature. We highlight the progress that has been made both in terms of scholarly insights and practical advances. We argue that the popular Input-Process-Outcome framework has facilitated progress in the field but has also become a limiting factor. We conclude that future advances will be associated with: (a) the advent of new theories, methodologies, and tools for modeling dynamic team properties; (b) a greater appreciation for, and sophisticated conceptions of, team task environments; and (c) conceptions of teams as entities in multilevel environments. (PsycINFO Database Record

A cross-level investigation of informal field-based learning and performance improvements.

Organizations often operate in complex and dynamic environments which place a premium on employees' ongoing learning and acquisition of new competencies. Additionally, the majority of learning in organizations does not take place in formal training settings, but we know relatively little about how informal field-based learning (IFBL) behaviors relate to changes in job performance. In this study, we first clarified the construct of IFBL as a subset of informal learning. Second, on the basis of this clarified construct definition, we developed a measure of IFBL behaviors and demonstrated its psychometric properties using (a) a sample of subject matter experts who made item content validity judgments and (b) both an Amazon Mechanical Turk sample (N = 400) and a sample of 1,707 healthcare employees. Third, we advanced a grounded theory of IFBL in healthcare, and related it to individuals' regulatory foci and contextual moderators of IFBL behaviors-job performance relationships using a cross-level design and lagged nonmethod bound measures. Specifically, using a sample of 407 healthcare workers from 49 hospital units, our results suggested that promotion-focused individuals, especially in well-staffed units, readily engage in IFBL behaviors. Additionally, we found that the IFBL-changes in job performance relationship was strengthened to the extent that individuals worked in units with relatively nonpunitive climates. Interestingly, staffing levels had a weakening moderating effect on the positive IFBL-performance improvements relationship. Detailed follow-up analyses revealed that the peculiar effect was attributable to differential relationships from IFBL subdimensions. Implications for future theory building, research, and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

A century of work teams in the Journal of Applied Psychology.

Work groups are a vital link between individuals and organizations. Systematic psychological research on the nature and effects of work groups dates back at least to the Hawthorne studies of the 1920s and 1930s. Yet little to none of this work appeared in the Journal of Applied Psychology until the 1950s when groups were treated primarily as foils against which to compare the performance of individuals. From the 1990s to the present, the volume of research and the nature of topics addressing work group/teams expanded significantly. The authors review the evolution of team research over the past century with a particular focus on that which has appeared in this journal. They chronicle the shift from a focus on individuals within teams, or on individual versus team comparisons, to a focus on the team itself and larger systems of teams. They describe the major outcomes studied within this literature, and how they relate to the nature of team tasks and structures. Further, the authors consider the roles of team members' characteristics and composition, and team dynamics in terms of processes and emergent states. They close with a call for future research that models dynamic team relationships in context and as they operate in complex systems. (PsycINFO Database Record

Modeling reciprocal team cohesion-performance relationships, as impacted by shared leadership and members' competence.

Despite the lengthy history of team cohesion-performance research, little is known about their reciprocal relationships over time. Using meta-analysis, we synthesize findings from 17 CLP design studies, and analyze their results using SEM. Results support that team cohesion and performance are related reciprocally with each other over time. We then used longitudinal data from 205 members of 57 student teams who competed in a complex business simulation over 10 weeks, to test: (a) whether team cohesion and performance were related reciprocally over multiple time periods, (b) the relative magnitude of those relationships, and (c) whether they were stable over time. We also considered the influence of team members' academic competence and degree of shared leadership on these dynamics. As anticipated, cohesion and performance were related positively, and reciprocally, over time. However, the cohesion → performance relationship was significantly higher than the performance → cohesion relationship. Moreover, the cohesion → performance relationship grew stronger over time whereas the performance → cohesion relationship remained fairly consistent over time. As expected, shared leadership related positively to team cohesion but not directly to their performance; whereas average team member academic competence related positively to team performance but was unrelated to team cohesion. Finally, we conducted and report a replication using a second sample of students competing in a business simulation. Our earlier substantive relationships were mostly replicated, and we illustrated the dynamic temporal properties of shared leadership. We discuss these findings in terms of theoretical importance, applied implications, and directions for future research.

Modeling time-lagged reciprocal psychological empowerment-performance relationships.

Employee psychological empowerment is widely accepted as a means for organizations to compete in increasingly dynamic environments. Previous empirical research and meta-analyses have demonstrated that employee psychological empowerment is positively related to several attitudinal and behavioral outcomes including job performance. While this research positions psychological empowerment as an antecedent influencing such outcomes, a close examination of the literature reveals that this relationship is primarily based on cross-sectional research. Notably, evidence supporting the presumed benefits of empowerment has failed to account for potential reciprocal relationships and endogeneity effects. Accordingly, using a multiwave, time-lagged design, we model reciprocal relationships between psychological empowerment and job performance using a sample of 441 nurses from 5 hospitals. Incorporating temporal effects in a staggered research design and using structural equation modeling techniques, our findings provide support for the conventional positive correlation between empowerment and subsequent performance. Moreover, accounting for the temporal stability of variables over time, we found support for empowerment levels as positive influences on subsequent changes in performance. Finally, we also found support for the reciprocal relationship, as performance levels were shown to relate positively to changes in empowerment over time. Theoretical and practical implications of the reciprocal psychological empowerment-performance relationships are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).

Leading multiple teams: average and relative external leadership influences on team empowerment and effectiveness.

External leaders continue to be an important source of influence even when teams are empowered, but it is not always clear how they do so. Extending research on structurally empowered teams, we recognize that teams' external leaders are often responsible for multiple teams. We adopt a multilevel approach to model external leader influences at both the team level and the external leader level of analysis. In doing so, we distinguish the influence of general external leader behaviors (i.e., average external leadership) from those that are directed differently toward the teams that they lead (i.e., relative external leadership). Analysis of data collected from 451 individuals, in 101 teams, reporting to 25 external leaders, revealed that both relative and average external leadership related positively to team empowerment. In turn, team empowerment related positively to team performance and member job satisfaction. However, while the indirect effects were all positive, we found that relative external leadership was not directly related to team performance, and average external leadership evidenced a significant negative direct influence. Additionally, relative external leadership exhibited a significant direct positive influence on member job satisfaction as anticipated, whereas average external leadership did not. These findings attest to the value in distinguishing external leaders' behaviors that are exhibited consistently versus differentially across empowered teams. Implications and future directions for the study and management of external leaders overseeing multiple teams are discussed.

Understanding and estimating the power to detect cross-level interaction effects in multilevel modeling.

Cross-level interaction effects lie at the heart of multilevel contingency and interactionism theories. Researchers have often lamented the difficulty of finding hypothesized cross-level interactions, and to date there has been no means by which the statistical power of such tests can be evaluated. We develop such a method and report results of a large-scale simulation study, verify its accuracy, and provide evidence regarding the relative importance of factors that affect the power to detect cross-level interactions. Our results indicate that the statistical power to detect cross-level interactions is determined primarily by the magnitude of the cross-level interaction, the standard deviation of lower level slopes, and the lower and upper level sample sizes. We provide a Monte Carlo tool that enables researchers to a priori design more efficient multilevel studies and provides a means by which they can better interpret potential explanations for nonsignificant results. We conclude with recommendations for how scholars might design future multilevel studies that will lead to more accurate inferences regarding the presence of cross-level interactions.

Managing a new collaborative entity in business organizations: understanding organizational communities of practice effectiveness.

Companies worldwide are turning to organizational communities of practice (OCoPs) as vehicles to generate learning and enhance organizational performance. OCoPs are defined as groups of employees who share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion about a topic and who strengthen their knowledge and expertise by interacting on a consistent basis. To date, OCoP research has drawn almost exclusively from the community of practice (CoP) literature, even though the organizational form of CoPs shares attributes of traditional CoPs and of organizational teams. Drawing on Lave and Wenger's (1991) original theory of legitimate peripheral participation, we integrate theory and research from CoPs and organizational teams to develop and empirically examine a model of OCoP effectiveness that includes constructs such as leadership, empowerment, the structure of tasks, and OCoP relevance to organizational effectiveness. Using data from 32 OCoPs in a U.S.-based multinational mining and minerals processing firm, we found that external community leaders play an important role in enhancing OCoP empowerment, particularly to the extent that task interdependence is high. Empowerment, in turn, was positively related to OCoP effectiveness. We also found that OCoPs designated as "core" by the organization (e.g., working on critical issues) were more effective than those that were noncore. Task interdependence also was positively related to OCoP effectiveness. We provide scholars and practitioners with insights on how to effectively manage OCoPs in today's organizations.

Laying the foundation for successful team performance trajectories: The roles of team charters and performance strategies.

This study examined the influences of team charters and performance strategies on the performance trajectories of 32 teams of master's of business administration students competing in a business strategy simulation over time. The authors extended existing theory on team development by demonstrating that devoting time to laying a foundation for both teamwork (i.e., team charters) and taskwork (performance strategies) can pay dividends in terms of more effective team performance over time. Using random coefficients growth modeling techniques, they found that teams with high-quality performance strategies outperformed teams with poorer quality strategies. However, a significant interaction between quality of the charters of teams and their performance strategies was found, such that the highest sustained performances were exhibited by teams that were high on both features. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved).

A longitudinal cross-level model of leader and salesperson influences on sales force technology use and performance.

The authors examined the influence of the introduction of a new suite of technology tools on the performance of 592 salespersons. They hypothesized that the salespersons' work experience would have a negative effect on their technology self-efficacy, which in turn would relate positively to their use of technology. Sales performance was hypothesized to be positively related to both past performance and the use of new technology tools. Further, the authors hypothesized that leaders' commitment to sales technology would enhance salespersons' technology self-efficacy and usage, and leaders' empowering behaviors would influence salespersons' technology self-efficacy and moderate the individual-level relationships. Hierarchical linear modeling analyses confirmed all of the hypothesized individual-level relationships and most of the cross-level relationships stemming from average leader behaviors. In particular, empowering leadership exhibited multiple cross-level interactions, as anticipated. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of social-psychological factors related to the success of sales force technology interventions.

Empowerment and team effectiveness: an empirical test of an integrated model.

The authors developed a model of team empowerment as an emergent state linking inputs (I) with processes (P) and, thereby, with outcomes (O) in the context of an expanded team IPO framework. Using survey responses from 452 members of 121 empowered service technician teams, along with archival quantitative performance and customer satisfaction criteria, the authors tested the model using structural equation modeling techniques. The model was generally supported, although areas for improvement were evident. Specifically, empowerment partially mediated the influences of various inputs on team processes, whereas team processes fully mediated the influence of empowerment on outcomes. Directions for future research and application are discussed.

To empower or not to empower your sales force? An empirical examination of the influence of leadership empowerment behavior on customer satisfaction and performance.

This research focuses on the impact of leadership empowerment behavior (LEB) on customer service satisfaction and sales performance, as mediated by salespeople's self-efficacy and adaptability. Moreover, the authors propose an interactive relationship whereby LEB will be differentially effective as a function of employees' empowerment readiness. The authors' hypotheses are tested using survey data from a sample of 231 salespeople in the pharmaceutical field, along with external ratings of satisfaction from 864 customers and archival sales performance information. Results indicated that contrary to popular belief, employees with low levels of product/industry knowledge and low experience benefit the most from leadership behaviors that are empowering, whereas high-knowledge and experienced employees reap no clear benefit. The authors conclude with directions for future research and application.