Refinement for single-nanoparticle structure determination from low-quality single-shot coherent diffraction data.

With the emergence of X-ray free-electron lasers, it is possible to investigate the structure of nanoscale samples by employing coherent diffractive imaging in the X-ray spectral regime. In this work, we developed a refinement method for structure reconstruction applicable to low-quality coherent diffraction data. The method is based on the gradient search method and considers the missing region of a diffraction pattern and the small number of detected photons. We introduced an initial estimate of the structure in the method to improve the convergence. The present method is applied to an experimental diffraction pattern of an Xe cluster obtained in an X-ray scattering experiment at the SPring-8 Angstrom Compact free-electron LAser (SACLA) facility. It is found that the electron density is successfully reconstructed from the diffraction pattern with a large missing region, with a good initial estimate of the structure. The diffraction pattern calculated from the reconstructed electron density reproduced the observed diffraction pattern well, including the characteristic intensity modulation in each ring. Our refinement method enables structure reconstruction from diffraction patterns under difficulties such as missing areas and low diffraction intensity, and it is potentially applicable to the structure determination of samples that have low scattering power.

Real-time observation of X-ray-induced intramolecular and interatomic electronic decay in CH2I2.

The increasing availability of X-ray free-electron lasers (XFELs) has catalyzed the development of single-object structural determination and of structural dynamics tracking in real-time. Disentangling the molecular-level reactions triggered by the interaction with an XFEL pulse is a fundamental step towards developing such applications. Here we report real-time observations of XFEL-induced electronic decay via short-lived transient electronic states in the diiodomethane molecule, using a femtosecond near-infrared probe laser. We determine the lifetimes of the transient states populated during the XFEL-induced Auger cascades and find that multiply charged iodine ions are issued from short-lived (∼20 fs) transient states, whereas the singly charged ones originate from significantly longer-lived states (∼100 fs). We identify the mechanisms behind these different time scales: contrary to the short-lived transient states which relax by molecular Auger decay, the long-lived ones decay by an interatomic Coulombic decay between two iodine atoms, during the molecular fragmentation.

Radiation-Induced Chemical Dynamics in Ar Clusters Exposed to Strong X-Ray Pulses.

We show that electron and ion spectroscopy reveals the details of the oligomer formation in Ar clusters exposed to an x-ray free electron laser (XFEL) pulse, i.e., chemical dynamics triggered by x rays. With guidance from a dedicated molecular dynamics simulation tool, we find that van der Waals bonding, the oligomer formation mechanism, and charge transfer among the cluster constituents significantly affect ionization dynamics induced by an XFEL pulse of moderate fluence. Our results clearly demonstrate that XFEL pulses can be used not only to "damage and destroy" molecular assemblies but also to modify and transform their molecular structure. The accuracy of the predictions obtained makes it possible to apply the cluster spectroscopy, in connection with the respective simulations, for estimation of the XFEL pulse fluence in the fluence regime below single-atom multiple-photon absorption, which is hardly accessible with other diagnostic tools.

Charge and Nuclear Dynamics Induced by Deep Inner-Shell Multiphoton Ionization of CH3I Molecules by Intense X-ray Free-Electron Laser Pulses.

In recent years, free-electron lasers operating in the true X-ray regime have opened up access to the femtosecond-scale dynamics induced by deep inner-shell ionization. We have investigated charge creation and transfer dynamics in the context of molecular Coulomb explosion of a single molecule, exposed to sequential deep inner-shell ionization within an ultrashort (10 fs) X-ray pulse. The target molecule was CH3I, methane sensitized to X-rays by halogenization with a heavy element, iodine. Time-of-flight ion spectroscopy and coincident ion analysis was employed to investigate, via the properties of the atomic fragments, single-molecule charge states of up to +22. Experimental findings have been compared with a parametric model of simultaneous Coulomb explosion and charge transfer in the molecule. The study demonstrates that including realistic charge dynamics is imperative when molecular Coulomb explosion experiments using short-pulse facilities are performed.