No aspect of structure should be left behind in relation to student autonomous motivation.

BACKGROUND: Provision of structure in classroom settings constitutes one of the pillars of conducive learning environments. However, little is known whether the particular elements of provided structure-namely, contingency, clear expectations, help and support, and monitoring-are equally important for student learning and motivation. AIMS: In this cross-sectional study, we aimed to investigate to what extent students' autonomous motivation is linearly and curvilinearly related to their perceptions of their teachers' contingency, clear expectations, help and support, and monitoring. SAMPLE: Participants were 12,036 Turkish adolescent students (age range: 15-19 years; 54.4% males) from 446 classes, nested into 24 public schools. METHODS: Cross-sectional, based on student ratings of their self-determined motivation and their teacher structure provision and autonomy support. RESULTS: Multilevel and ordinary least-squares polynomial regression analyses showed all the four perceived structure elements to predict autonomous motivation, with expectations and contingency (especially when coupled with monitoring) being even more important predictors than the other elements. Response surface analyses also showed strong positive relation between autonomous motivation and all the possible pairs of the four elements of perceived structure along the line of congruence, suggesting an additive effect when teachers are thought to be contingent and helpful and supportive (or monitor their students, or clearly communicate their expectations). CONCLUSIONS: These findings imply the key role that teachers could play in enhancing their students' autonomous motivation by providing all the elements of structure.

A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Variability in Student Perceptions.

Student perceptions using surveys are frequently used to measure student perceptions of teachers' teaching quality in secondary and higher education. Research shows that the variance in student perceptions exists within a class and between countries. However, the influence of individual- and cultural-level factors on the variance of student perceptions is less well studied. More insights are needed to understand the mechanisms underlying the variance in student perceptions in-depth. Insights into determinants of student perceptions of teaching quality could become valuable toward understanding school-related outcomes. A conceptual framework is put forward in this study to enhance our understanding of manifestations of student perceptions of teaching quality. It is suggested that value orientations at the individual- and cultural-level as well as social desirability may play a role in understanding student perceptions of teaching quality. Understanding students' individual and collective perceptions of teaching quality can contribute to teachers' sense-making of their student evaluations. It is argued that this understanding could contribute to enhancing the development of teaching quality and ultimately education quality.

Student Perceptions in Measuring Teaching Behavior Across Six Countries: A Multi-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis Approach to Measurement Invariance.

The purpose of this study is to examine measurement invariance of scoring of teaching behavior, as perceived by students, across six cultural contexts (Netherlands, Spain, Turkey, South Africa, South Korea, and Indonesia). It also aims to compare perceived teaching behavior across the six countries based on a uniform student measure. Results from multi-group confirmatory factor analyses (MGCFA) showed perceived teaching behavior in the six countries to be adequately invariant. Perceived teaching behavior was the highest in South Korea and the lowest in Indonesia. The findings provide new insights into the relevance and differences of teaching behavior across cultural contexts.

Teacher as Social Context (TASC) Questionnaire in the Spanish Setting: Teacher Version / El cuestionario Teacher as Social Context (TASC) en España: versión para el profesorado

This study pioneered the construction or adaptation of a Spanish version of the Teacher as Social Context (TASC) Questionnaire. The current study included a sample of 410 secondary education teachers in Spain. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed using the maximum likelihood estimation; the factorial invariance of the TASC-Spanish teacher measure across genders was analyzed using a multi-group confirmatory factor analysis. Finally, correlational analyses between the three TASC scales (involvement, structure, and autonomy support) and behavioral and emotional engagement were run. The results of this research confirmed the structure of the original instrument maintaining the three basic domains. The measurement model also proved to be invariant across gender. Besides, this study supports the assumption that teachers' perceptions of their own activity to fulfil students' basic psychological needs show a relationship with students’ emotional and behavioural engagement, being teachers' involvement the most determinant domain

Este estudio ha sido pionero en la construcción o adaptación de una versión en español del cuestionario Teacher as Social Context (TASC). El estudio actual incluyó una muestra de 410 profesores de educación secundaria en España. Se realizó un análisis factorial confirmatorio utilizando la estimación de máxima verosimilitud; la invarianza factorial de la versión española del cuestionario TASC entre géneros se analizó utilizando un análisis factorial confirmatorio multigrupo. Por último, se realizaron análisis correlacionales entre las tres escalas TASC (participación, estructura y apoyo a la autonomía) y el compromiso conductual y emocional. Los resultados de esta investigación confirmaron la estructura del instrumento original manteniendo las tres dimensiones básicas. El modelo de medición también demostró ser invariable en función del género. Además, este estudio sustenta la suposición de que la percepción de los profesores sobre su propia actividad en relación con la satisfacción de las necesidades psicológicas básicas de los estudiantes muestra una relación con el compromiso emocional y conductual de estos, siendo la implicación de los profesores la dimensión más determinante

Differentiated Instruction in Secondary Education: A Systematic Review of Research Evidence.

Differentiated instruction is a pedagogical-didactical approach that provides teachers with a starting point for meeting students' diverse learning needs. Although differentiated instruction has gained a lot of attention in practice and research, not much is known about the status of the empirical evidence and its benefits for enhancing student achievement in secondary education. The current review sets out to provide an overview of the theoretical conceptualizations of differentiated instruction as well as prior findings on its effectiveness. Then, by means of a systematic review of the literature from 2006 to 2016, empirical evidence on the effects of within-class differentiated instruction for secondary school students' academic achievement is evaluated and summarized. After a rigorous search and selection process, only 14 papers about 12 unique empirical studies on the topic were selected for review. A narrative description of the selected papers shows that differentiated instruction has been operationalized in many different ways. The selection includes studies on generic teacher trainings for differentiated instruction, ability grouping and tiering, individualization, mastery learning, heterogeneous grouping, and remediation in flipped classroom lessons. The majority of the studies show small to moderate positive effects of differentiated instruction on student achievement. Summarized effect sizes across studies range from d = +0.741 to +0.509 (omitting an outlier). These empirical findings give some indication of the possible benefits of differentiated instruction. However, they also point out that there are still severe knowledge gaps. More research is needed before drawing convincing conclusions regarding the effectiveness and value of different approaches to differentiated instruction for secondary school classes.

Student Perceptions of Secondary Education Teaching Effectiveness: General Profile, the Role of Personal Factors, and Educational Level.

The purpose of this study was to examine student perceptions of teaching behavior. Additionally the aim was to examine if teacher characteristics (educational level, gender, and teaching experience) could explain differences in student perceptions of their teachers. Teaching behavior was studied from the research on teaching and teacher effectiveness perspective. Secondary students (N = 7,114), taught by 410 teachers in Spain, participated in the study. Survey data were analyzed using non-parametric tests, Kruskal-Wallis, U Mann-Whitney with Bonferroni correction, and the analysis of effect sizes. Furthermore, a regression model was applied. Results showed that teaching behavior was perceived as sufficient to good, depending on the teaching behavior domain. Results indicated interesting differences between lower secondary education, upper secondary education and vocational education and training teachers. The effect size values (r U statistic) ranged between 0.43 and 0.63, highlighting the significant effect of teachers' teaching experience on the six teaching skills domains: learning climate, efficient classroom management, clarity of instruction, activating teaching, differentiation, and teaching learning strategies. Those teachers with less teaching experience were the ones who showed higher scores. Findings from the regression model showed that educational level had a significant predictive effect on the six teaching skills domains, mainly for male teachers. However, in several domains female teachers were perceived by students to outperform their male counterparts.

The longitudinal effects of induction on beginning teachers' stress.

BACKGROUND: Teaching is a stressful profession especially for beginning teachers. Induction programmes can support beginning teachers. Little is known concerning which elements of induction programmes can influence (the change in) teachers' stress over time. AIMS: This study aims to investigate the growth of stress causes and stress responses during the first 3 years of professional practice and to reveal the influence of induction arrangement elements on the initial level as well as the change in stress levels over the 2 years that followed. SAMPLE: Longitudinal data from a sample of 393 beginning teachers (56.5% female) were collected at three measurement occasions. All teachers were offered four different induction arrangement elements. METHOD: Results of multiple group confirmatory factor analysis confirmed longitudinal measurement invariance. Multivariate latent growth curve modelling (MLGM) was conducted to examine the initial status, the subsequent linear growth, and the influence of the individual induction arrangement elements on the stress causes and stress responses. RESULTS: MLGM results show that perceived stress caused by high psychological task demands increases over time (d = 0.22), whereas perceived stress caused by negative pupil aspects decreases over time (d = -0.52). Further, workload reduction decreases the level of perceived high psychological task demands, negative social aspects, and all the stress responses. Perceived support for effective teaching behaviour decreases the level of perceived negative emotions and discontent. Further, school enculturation has an influence on the change in perceived discontent over time. CONCLUSIONS: Perceived stress causes and stress responses can change over time. Specific induction arrangement elements appear to be powerful elements to reduce the level, and the change over time, of specific perceived stress causes and stress responses.

Teacher-student interpersonal relationships do change and affect academic motivation: a multilevel growth curve modelling.

BACKGROUND: Research has shown that the teacher-student interpersonal relationship (TSIR) is important for student motivation. Although TSIR has received a growing interest, there are only few studies that focus on changes and links between TSIR and student academic motivation in a longitudinal fashion in non-Western contexts. AIMS: This study investigated changes in TSIR and links with academic motivation as perceived by first-grade secondary school students in Indonesia. TSIR was studied from the perspective of interpersonal behaviour in terms of Influence and Proximity. Students' academic motivation was studied from the perspective of self-determination theory. SAMPLE AND METHODS: A total of 504 first-grade secondary school students of 16 mathematics and English classes participated in the study. Surveys were administered in five waves throughout the school year. Multilevel growth curve modelling was applied. RESULTS: Contrary to the (limited) general research findings from Western contexts, we found that the quality of TSIR (student perceptions) increased over time. The increase was slightly more pronounced for Proximity than for Influence. In accordance with the findings for the Western countries, the level of students' controlled motivation increased, while that of autonomous motivation decreased over time. However, the negative change in autonomous motivation was less pronounced. As in Western countries, TSIR was longitudinally linked with academic motivation, in particular, with autonomous motivation. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence is found that TSIR can change in a favourable way, and this positively affects student motivation. Future research could benefit from unravelling the influences of cultures on changes in TSIR in broader contexts.

Changes in teachers' involvement versus rejection and links with academic motivation during the first year of secondary education: a multilevel growth curve analysis.

Research consistently shows that the learning environment plays an important role for early adolescents' learning and outcomes and suggests that good teacher-student relationships can serve as a protective factor for maintaining young adolescents' interest and active engagement in learning. However, less is known about the dynamic nature of teacher-student relationships and how they link with academic motivation development. Furthermore, little is known about the nature and the effects of teacher-student relationships in a cross-national context. The present study investigated changes in two components of teacher-student relationships (teachers' involvement vs. rejection) and examined links with students' academic motivation during the first grade of secondary school. Ten Dutch and ten Indonesian teachers (65 % female) from 24 classes were videoed 12 times across the school year, and four videos for each class were selected randomly and coded on teachers' involvement versus rejection. A total of 713 students (52 % girls) completed four-wave measures of their academic motivation after each video observation. Multilevel growth curve modeling revealed that the teacher's involvement changed in a curvilinear way and decreased across the first year of secondary education, while changes in the teacher's rejection did not follow a linear time function. Academic motivation changed in an undesirable way: controlled motivation increased, while autonomous motivation decreased over time. Teachers' involvement had a unique contribution in preventing high levels of controlled motivation in both countries. Findings suggest that teacher-student relationships (teachers' involvement) play an essential role in early adolescents' motivation regardless of the nations and should be a priority for schools.