From the primordial soup to self-driving cars: standards and their role in natural and technological innovation.

Standards are specifications to which the elements of a technology must conform. Here, we apply this notion to the biochemical 'technologies' of nature, where objects like DNA and proteins, as well as processes like the regulation of gene activity are highly standardized. We introduce the concept of standards with multiple examples, ranging from the ancient genetic material RNA, to Palaeolithic stone axes, and digital electronics, and we discuss common ways in which standards emerge in nature and technology. We then focus on the question of how standards can facilitate technological and biological innovation. Innovation-enhancing standards include those of proteins and digital electronics. They share common features, such as that few standardized building blocks can be combined through standard interfaces to create myriad useful objects or processes. We argue that such features will also characterize the most innovation-enhancing standards of future technologies.

The effectiveness of low-cost soil treatments to reduce soil and dust lead hazards: The Boston lead safe yards low cost lead in soil treatment, demonstration and evaluation.

The Boston lead safe yards low cost lead in soil treatment, demonstration, and evaluation was developed to explore the viability and effectiveness of low-cost soil interventions to reduce exposure to soil lead hazards. Buildings that had been abated for lead to Massachusetts's deleading standards in the previous 5 yrs and met other program requirements were recruited for the evaluation. Following individual property assessments, yards were treated with application of ground coverings and ground barriers in 2000-2001 and followed up at 1 yr. The treatment cost ranged from 1095 dollars to 5643 dollars with an average of 2798 dollars. Soil lead levels at the building dripline, measured with a field-portable X-ray fluorescence analyzer (Niton Model 702 Spectrum Analyzer), dropped from 2021 PPM at baseline to 206 PPM at 1-yr follow-up. Most of the barrier treatments continued to block access to the lead-contaminated soil at 1yr. At the follow-up, few properties with grass treatment had areas that were completely bare, but 28% had more than a small amount of treated areas bare. Treatments were effective in reducing entryway dust lead in the rear of the building if the residents reported they had maintained the yard treatments. Each additional yard work activity reported was predicted to lower 1-yr floor dust lead loading at the rear common/main and dwelling unit entries by about 20%. Each additional 100 ft2 of yard treated was predicted to lower 1-yr floor dust loading at the rear dwelling unit entry by 19%. Treatments did not show a dust lead effect at 1 yr in the front entryway of the building, but the investigators believe that this may be due to the effect of resident cleaning overshadowing the treatment effect.