Feeling the Strain: Quantifying Ligand Deformation in Photosynthesis.

Structural distortion of protein-bound ligands can play a critical role in enzyme function by tuning the electronic and chemical properties of the ligand molecule. However, quantifying these effects is difficult due to the limited resolution of protein structures and the difficulty of generating accurate structural restraints for nonprotein ligands. Here, we seek to quantify these effects through a statistical analysis of ligand distortion in chlorophyll proteins (CP), where ring deformation is thought to play a role in energy and electron transfer. To assess the accuracy of ring-deformation estimates from available structural data, we take advantage of the C2 symmetry of photosystem II (PSII), comparing ring-deformation estimates for equivalent sites both within and between 113 distinct X-ray and cryogenic electron microscopy PSII structures. Significantly, we find that several deformation modes exhibit considerable variability in predictions, even for equivalent monomers, down to a 2 Å resolution, to an extent that probably prevents their utilization in optical calculations. We further find that refinement restraints play a critical role in determining deformation values to resolution as low as 2 Å. However, for those modes that are well-resolved in the structural data, ring deformation in PSII is strongly conserved across all species tested from cyanobacteria to algae. These results highlight both the opportunities and limitations inherent in structure-based analyses of the bioenergetic and optical properties of CPs and other protein-ligand complexes.

Energetic robustness to large scale structural fluctuations in a photosynthetic supercomplex.

Photosynthetic organisms transport and convert solar energy with near-unity quantum efficiency using large protein supercomplexes held in flexible membranes. The individual proteins position chlorophylls to tight tolerances considered critical for fast and efficient energy transfer. The variability in protein organization within the supercomplexes, and how efficiency is maintained despite variability, had been unresolved. Here, we report on structural heterogeneity in the 2-MDa cyanobacterial PSI-IsiA photosynthetic supercomplex observed using Cryo-EM, revealing large-scale variances in the positions of IsiA relative to PSI. Single-molecule measurements found efficient IsiA-to-PSI energy transfer across all conformations, along with signatures of transiently decoupled IsiA. Structure based calculations showed that rapid IsiA-to-PSI energy transfer is always maintained, and even increases by three-fold in rare conformations via IsiA-specific chls. We postulate that antennae design mitigates structural fluctuations, providing a mechanism for robust energy transfer in the flexible membrane.

Elucidating interprotein energy transfer dynamics within the antenna network from purple bacteria.

In photosynthesis, absorbed light energy transfers through a network of antenna proteins with near-unity quantum efficiency to reach the reaction center, which initiates the downstream biochemical reactions. While the energy transfer dynamics within individual antenna proteins have been extensively studied over the past decades, the dynamics between the proteins are poorly understood due to the heterogeneous organization of the network. Previously reported timescales averaged over such heterogeneity, obscuring individual interprotein energy transfer steps. Here, we isolated and interrogated interprotein energy transfer by embedding two variants of the primary antenna protein from purple bacteria, light-harvesting complex 2 (LH2), together into a near-native membrane disc, known as a nanodisc. We integrated ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy, quantum dynamics simulations, and cryogenic electron microscopy to determine interprotein energy transfer timescales. By varying the diameter of the nanodiscs, we replicated a range of distances between the proteins. The closest distance possible between neighboring LH2, which is the most common in native membranes, is 25 Šand resulted in a timescale of 5.7 ps. Larger distances of 28 to 31 Šresulted in timescales of 10 to 14 ps. Corresponding simulations showed that the fast energy transfer steps between closely spaced LH2 increase transport distances by ∼15%. Overall, our results introduce a framework for well-controlled studies of interprotein energy transfer dynamics and suggest that protein pairs serve as the primary pathway for the efficient transport of solar energy.

Purification of Active Photosystem I-Light Harvesting Complex I from Plant Tissues.

This method is used to isolate Photosystem I (PSI) together with the Light Harvesting Complex I (LHCI), its native antenna, from plants. PSI-LHCI is a large membrane protein complex coordinating hundreds of light harvesting and electron transport factors and is the most efficient light harvesting system found in nature. Photons absorbed by the four LHCA antenna proteins that make up LHCI are transferred through excitonic interaction to the PSI core reaction center and are used to facilitate light-driven charge separation across the thylakoid membrane, providing reducing power and energy for carbon fixation in photoautotrophic organisms. The high quantum efficiency of PSI makes this complex an excellent model to study light-driven energy transfer. In this protocol, plant tissue is mechanically homogenized, and the chloroplasts are separated from the bulk cellular debris by filtration and centrifugation. The isolated chloroplasts are then osmotically lysed, and the thylakoid membranes are recovered via centrifugation and solubilized using the detergent n-dodecyl-beta-maltoside. The solubilized material is loaded onto an anion exchange column to collect most of the chlorophyll-containing complexes. Larger complexes are precipitated from the solution, resuspended in a small volume, and loaded on sucrose gradients to separate the major chlorophyll-containing complexes. The resulting sucrose gradient fractions are characterized to identify the band of interest containing PSI-LHCI. This protocol is highly similar to the protocol used in the crystallization of plant PSI-LHCI with some simplifications and relies on methods developed over the years in the lab of Nathan Nelson.

Structure of Dunaliella photosystem II reveals conformational flexibility of stacked and unstacked supercomplexes.

Photosystem II (PSII) generates an oxidant whose redox potential is high enough to enable water oxidation , a substrate so abundant that it assures a practically unlimited electron source for life on earth . Our knowledge on the mechanism of water photooxidation was greatly advanced by high-resolution structures of prokaryotic PSII . Here, we show high-resolution cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of eukaryotic PSII from the green alga Dunaliella salina at two distinct conformations. The conformers are also present in stacked PSII, exhibiting flexibility that may be relevant to the grana formation in chloroplasts of the green lineage. CP29, one of PSII associated light-harvesting antennae, plays a major role in distinguishing the two conformations of the supercomplex. We also show that the stacked PSII dimer, a form suggested to support the organisation of thylakoid membranes , can appear in many different orientations providing a flexible stacking mechanism for the arrangement of grana stacks in thylakoids. Our findings provide a structural basis for the heterogenous nature of the eukaryotic PSII on multiple levels.

Molecular asymmetry of a photosynthetic supercomplex from green sulfur bacteria.

The photochemical reaction center (RC) features a dimeric architecture for charge separation across the membrane. In green sulfur bacteria (GSB), the trimeric Fenna-Matthews-Olson (FMO) complex mediates the transfer of light energy from the chlorosome antenna complex to the RC. Here we determine the structure of the photosynthetic supercomplex from the GSB Chlorobaculum tepidum using single-particle cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and identify the cytochrome c subunit (PscC), two accessory protein subunits (PscE and PscF), a second FMO trimeric complex, and a linker pigment between FMO and the RC core. The protein subunits that are assembled with the symmetric RC core generate an asymmetric photosynthetic supercomplex. One linker bacteriochlorophyll (BChl) is located in one of the two FMO-PscA interfaces, leading to differential efficiencies of the two energy transfer branches. The two FMO trimeric complexes establish two different binding interfaces with the RC cytoplasmic surface, driven by the associated accessory subunits. This structure of the GSB photosynthetic supercomplex provides mechanistic insight into the light excitation energy transfer routes and a possible evolutionary transition intermediate of the bacterial photosynthetic supercomplex from the primitive homodimeric RC.

Frequency-Domain Spectroscopic Study of the Photosystem I Supercomplexes, Isolated IsiA Monomers, and the Intact IsiA Ring.

The PSI3-IsiA18 supercomplex is one of the largest and most complicated assemblies in photosynthesis. The IsiA ring, composed of 18 IsiA monomers (IsiA18) surrounding the PSI trimer (PSI3), forms under iron-deficient conditions in cyanobacteria and acts as a peripheral antenna. Based on the supercomplex structure recently determined via cryo-EM imaging, we model various optical spectra of the IsiA monomers and IsiA18 ring. Comparison of the absorption and emission spectra of the isolated IsiA monomers and the full ring reveals that about 2.7 chlorophylls (Chls) are lost in the isolated IsiA monomers. The best fits for isolated monomers spectra are obtained assuming the absence of Chl 508 and Chl 517 and 70% loss of Chl 511. The best model describing all three hexamers and the entire ring suggests that the lowest energy pigments are Chls 511, 514, and 517. Based on the modeling results presented in this work, we conclude that there are most likely three entry points for EET from the IsiA6 hexamer to the PSI core monomer, with two of these entry points likely being located next to each other (i.e., nine entry points from IsiA18 to the PSI3 trimer). Finally, we show that excitation energy transfer inside individual monomers is fast (<2 ps at T = 5 K) and at least 20 times faster than intermonomer energy transfer.

The structure of photosystem I from a high-light-tolerant cyanobacteria.

Photosynthetic organisms have adapted to survive a myriad of extreme environments from the earth's deserts to its poles, yet the proteins that carry out the light reactions of photosynthesis are highly conserved from the cyanobacteria to modern day crops. To investigate adaptations of the photosynthetic machinery in cyanobacteria to excessive light stress, we isolated a new strain of cyanobacteria, Cyanobacterium aponinum 0216, from the extreme light environment of the Sonoran Desert. Here we report the biochemical characterization and the 2.7 Å resolution structure of trimeric photosystem I from this high-light-tolerant cyanobacterium. The structure shows a new conformation of the PsaL C-terminus that supports trimer formation of cyanobacterial photosystem I. The spectroscopic analysis of this photosystem I revealed a decrease in far-red absorption, which is attributed to a decrease in the number of long- wavelength chlorophylls. Using these findings, we constructed two chimeric PSIs in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 demonstrating how unique structural features in photosynthetic complexes can change spectroscopic properties, allowing organisms to thrive under different environmental stresses.

Author Correction: The structure of a red-shifted photosystem I reveals a red site in the core antenna.

A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19953-w.

The structure of a red-shifted photosystem I reveals a red site in the core antenna.

Photosystem I coordinates more than 90 chlorophylls in its core antenna while achieving near perfect quantum efficiency. Low energy chlorophylls (also known as red chlorophylls) residing in the antenna are important for energy transfer dynamics and yield, however, their precise location remained elusive. Here, we construct a chimeric Photosystem I complex in Synechocystis PCC 6803 that shows enhanced absorption in the red spectral region. We combine Cryo-EM and spectroscopy to determine the structure-function relationship in this red-shifted Photosystem I complex. Determining the structure of this complex reveals the precise architecture of the low energy site as well as large scale structural heterogeneity which is probably universal to all trimeric Photosystem I complexes. Identifying the structural elements that constitute red sites can expand the absorption spectrum of oxygenic photosynthetic and potentially modulate light harvesting efficiency.

On the Red Antenna States of Photosystem I Mutants from Cyanobacteria Synechocystis PCC 6803.

To identify the molecular composition of the low-energy states in cyanobacterial Photosystem I (PSI) of Synechocystis PCC6803, we focus on high-resolution (low-temperature) absorption, emission, resonant, and nonresonant hole-burned spectra obtained for wild-type (WT) PSI and three PSI mutants. In the Red_a mutant, the B33 chlorophyll (Chl) is added to the B31-B32 dimer; in Red_b, histidine 95 (His95) on PsaB (which coordinates Mg in the B7 Chl within the His95-B7-A31-A32-cluster) is replaced with glutamine (Gln), while in the Red_ab mutant, both mutations are made. We show that the C706 state (B31-B32) changes to the C710 state (B31-B32-B33) in both Red_a and Red_ab mutants, while the C707 state in WT Synechocystis (localized on the His95-B7-A31-A32 cluster) is modified to C716 in both Red_b and Red_ab. Excitation energy transfer from C706 to the C714 trap in the WT PSI and Red_b mutant is hampered as reflected by a weak emission at 712 nm. Large electron-phonon coupling strength (exposed via resonant hole-burned spectra) is consistent with a strong mixing of excited states with intermolecular charge transfer states leading to significantly red-shifted emission spectra. We conclude that excitation energy transfer in PSI is controlled by fine-tuning the electronic states of a small number of highly conserved red states. Finally, we show that mutations modify the protein potential energy landscape as revealed by different shapes and shifts of the blue- and red-shifted antiholes.

The structure of the stress-induced photosystem I-IsiA antenna supercomplex.

Photochemical conversion in oxygenic photosynthesis takes place in two large protein-pigment complexes named photosystem II and photosystem I (PSII and PSI, respectively). Photosystems associate with antennae in vivo to increase the size of photosynthetic units to hundreds or thousands of pigments. Regulation of the interactions between antennae and photosystems allows photosynthetic organisms to adapt to their environment. In low-iron environments, cyanobacteria express IsiA, a PSI antenna, critical to their survival. Here we describe the structure of the PSI-IsiA complex isolated from the mesophilic cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. This 2-MDa photosystem-antenna supercomplex structure reveals more than 700 pigments coordinated by 51 subunits, as well as the mechanisms facilitating the self-assembly and association of IsiA with multiple PSI assemblies.

Binding of ferredoxin to algal photosystem I involves a single binding site and is composed of two thermodynamically distinct events.

Despite the impressive progress made in recent years in understanding the early steps in charge separation within the photosynthetic reaction centers, our knowledge of how ferredoxin (Fd) interacts with the acceptor side of photosystem I (PSI) is not as well developed. Fd accepts electrons after transiently docking to a binding site on the acceptor side of PSI. However, the exact location, as well as the stoichiometry, of this binding have been a matter of debate for more than two decades. Here, using Isothermal Titration Calorimetry (ITC) and purified components from wild type and mutant strains of the green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii we show that PSI has a single binding site for Fd, and that the association consists of two distinct binding events, each with a specific association constant.

Structure of the plant photosystem I supercomplex at 2.6†Šresolution.

Four elaborate membrane complexes carry out the light reaction of oxygenic photosynthesis. Photosystem I (PSI) is one of two large reaction centres responsible for converting light photons into the chemical energy needed to sustain life. In the thylakoid membranes of plants, PSI is found together with its integral light-harvesting antenna, light-harvesting complex I (LHCI), in a membrane supercomplex containing hundreds of light-harvesting pigments. Here, we report the crystal structure of plant PSI-LHCI at 2.6 Šresolution. The structure reveals the configuration of PsaK, a core subunit important for state transitions in plants, a conserved network of water molecules surrounding the electron transfer centres and an elaborate structure of lipids bridging PSI and its LHCI antenna. We discuss the implications of the structure for energy transfer and the evolution of PSI.

The structure of plant photosystem I super-complex at 2.8 Å resolution.

Most life forms on Earth are supported by solar energy harnessed by oxygenic photosynthesis. In eukaryotes, photosynthesis is achieved by large membrane-embedded super-complexes, containing reaction centers and connected antennae. Here, we report the structure of the higher plant PSI-LHCI super-complex determined at 2.8 Å resolution. The structure includes 16 subunits and more than 200 prosthetic groups, which are mostly light harvesting pigments. The complete structures of the four LhcA subunits of LHCI include 52 chlorophyll a and 9 chlorophyll b molecules, as well as 10 carotenoids and 4 lipids. The structure of PSI-LHCI includes detailed protein pigments and pigment-pigment interactions, essential for the mechanism of excitation energy transfer and its modulation in one of nature's most efficient photochemical machines.

Crystal structures of virus-like photosystem I complexes from the mesophilic cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803.

Oxygenic photosynthesis supports virtually all life forms on earth. Light energy is converted by two photosystems-photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII). Globally, nearly 50% of photosynthesis takes place in the Ocean, where single cell cyanobacteria and algae reside together with their viruses. An operon encoding PSI was identified in cyanobacterial marine viruses. We generated a PSI that mimics the salient features of the viral complex, named PSI(PsaJF). PSI(PsaJF) is promiscuous for its electron donors and can accept electrons from respiratory cytochromes. We solved the structure of PSI(PsaJF) and a monomeric PSI, with subunit composition similar to the viral PSI, providing for the first time a detailed description of the reaction center and antenna system from mesophilic cyanobacteria, including red chlorophylls and cofactors of the electron transport chain. Our finding extends the understanding of PSI structure, function and evolution and suggests a unique function for the viral PSI. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01496.001.

The evolution of photosystem I in light of phage-encoded reaction centres.

Recent structural determinations and metagenomic studies shed light on the evolution of photosystem I (PSI) from the homodimeric reaction centre of primitive bacteria to plant PSI at the top of the evolutionary development. The evolutionary scenario of over 3.5 billion years reveals an increase in the complexity of PSI. This phenomenon of ever-increasing complexity is common to all evolutionary processes that in their advanced stages are highly dependent on fine-tuning of regulatory processes. On the other hand, the recently discovered virus-encoded PSI complexes contain a minimal number of subunits. This may reflect the unique selection scenarios associated with viral replication. It may be beneficial for future engineering of productive processes to utilize 'primitive' complexes that disregard the cellular regulatory processes and to avoid those regulatory constraints when our goal is to divert the process from its original route. In this article, we discuss the evolutionary forces that act on viral reaction centres and the role of the virus-carried photosynthetic genes in the evolution of photosynthesis.

Temperature-sensitive PSII and promiscuous PSI as a possible solution for sustainable photosynthetic hydrogen production.

Sustainable hydrogen production in cyanobacteria becomes feasible as a result of our recent studies of the structure of photosystem I encoding operon in a marine phage. We demonstrated that the fused PsaJF subunit from the phage, substituted for the two separate subunits in Synechocystis, enabled the mutated PSI to accept electrons from additional electron donors such as respiratory cytochromes. In this way, a type of photorespiration was created in which the cell consumes organic material through respiratory processes and PSI serves as a terminal electron acceptor, substituting for cytochrome oxidase. We designed a hydrogen-producing bioreactor in which this type of photorespiration could utilize the organic material of the cell as an electron source for H(2) production. We propose, in parallel, to engineer cyanobacterial and/or algal strains with a temperature-sensitive PSII and enhanced respiration rates to achieve efficient and sustainable hydrogen production. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Photosynthesis Research for Sustainability: from Natural to Artificial.

Elg1, an alternative subunit of the RFC clamp loader, preferentially interacts with SUMOylated PCNA.

Replication-factor C (RFC) is a protein complex that loads the processivity clamp PCNA onto DNA. Elg1 is a conserved protein with homology to the largest subunit of RFC, but its function remained enigmatic. Here, we show that yeast Elg1 interacts physically and genetically with PCNA, in a manner that depends on PCNA modification, and exhibits preferential affinity for SUMOylated PCNA. This interaction is mediated by three small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO)-interacting motifs and a PCNA-interacting protein box close to the N-terminus of Elg1. These motifs are important for the ability of Elg1 to maintain genomic stability. SUMOylated PCNA is known to recruit the helicase Srs2, and in the absence of Elg1, Srs2 and SUMOylated PCNA accumulate on chromatin. Strains carrying mutations in both ELG1 and SRS2 exhibit a synthetic fitness defect that depends on PCNA modification. Our results underscore the importance of Elg1, Srs2 and SUMOylated PCNA in the maintenance of genomic stability.

Integration of a foreign gene into a native complex does not impair fitness in an experimental model of lateral gene transfer.

Lateral gene transfer (LGT) is a central force in microbial evolution. The observation that genes encoding subunits of complexes exhibit relatively compatible phylogenies, suggesting vertical descent, can be explained by different evolutionary scenarios. On the one hand, the failure of a new gene product to correctly interact with preexisting protein subunits can make its acquisition neutral-a theory termed the "complexity hypothesis." On the other hand, foreign subunit-encoding genes may reduce the fitness of the new host by disrupting the stoichiometric balance between complex subunits, resulting in purifying selection against gene retention. We previously showed in a model LGT system that overexpression of an orthologous subunit was neutral due to lack of interaction with host subunits. Here, we examine a case where the foreign protein is more similar to its native orthologs, by expressing the RNA polymerase ß subunit (RpoB) of Bacillus subtilis in Escherichia coli. The foreign subunit is shown by coimmunoprecipitation to interact with the host subunits, and to form novel, nonspecific interactions. Nevertheless, the host did not incur any fitness disadvantage, as measured by its growth. We conclude that LGT of complex subunits may be neutral even when the transferred subunit can integrate into the host complex and that this neutrality can be a fertile ground for selective forces once the environment changes.