Workplace culture in psychiatric nursing described by nurses.

AIM: This study looks to describe the workplace culture from the viewpoints of stress, job satisfaction and practice environment. METHODS: Data were collected from nurses (n = 109) using a web-based survey, The Person-Centred Nursing Index, from two purposefully selected hospital districts in Finland. Data were statistically analysed. RESULTS: Nurses described their workplace culture in slightly positive terms. Nurses only occasionally experienced stress (mean = 2.56, SD = 0.55) and were fairly satisfied with their job (mean = 4.75, SD = 0.66) and their practice environment (mean = 4.42, SD = 0.81). Demographic variables such as the nurses' age, length of time in nursing, time at their present hospital, working shifts and their use of patient restriction were more frequently associated with their perceived workplace culture. CONCLUSION: Older nurses and those with a longer work history in the nursing profession tended to be more satisfied with their workplace culture in psychiatric nursing. Young and/or newly graduated nurses felt more negatively on their workplace culture; this issue should be recognised and addressed with appropriate support and mentoring. Nurses who used restrictive measures were more often less satisfied with their workplace culture. Continuous efforts are needed to reduce the use of coercive measures, which challenge also the managers to support nursing practice to be more person-centred.

Improving skills and care standards in the support workforce for older people: a realist synthesis of workforce development interventions.

OBJECTIVES: This evidence review was conducted to understand how and why workforce development interventions can improve the skills and care standards of support workers in older people's services. DESIGN: Following recognised realist synthesis principles, the review was completed by (1) development of an initial programme theory; (2) retrieval, review and synthesis of evidence relating to interventions designed to develop the support workforce; (3) 'testing out' the synthesis findings to refine the programme theories, and establish their practical relevance/potential for implementation through stakeholder interviews; and (4) forming actionable recommendations. PARTICIPANTS: Stakeholders who represented services, commissioners and older people were involved in workshops in an advisory capacity, and 10 participants were interviewed during the theory refinement process. RESULTS: Eight context-mechanism-outcome (CMO) configurations were identified which cumulatively comprise a new programme theory about 'what works' to support workforce development in older people's services. The CMOs indicate that the design and delivery of workforce development includes how to make it real to the work of those delivering support to older people; the individual support worker's personal starting points and expectations of the role; how to tap into support workers' motivations; the use of incentivisation; joining things up around workforce development; getting the right mix of people engaged in the design and delivery of workforce development programmes/interventions; taking a planned approach to workforce development, and the ways in which components of interventions reinforce one another, increasing the potential for impacts to embed and spread across organisations. CONCLUSIONS: It is important to take a tailored approach to the design and delivery of workforce development that is mindful of the needs of older people, support workers, health and social care services and the employing organisations within which workforce development operates. Workforce development interventions need to balance the technical, professional and emotional aspects of care. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42013006283.

Nurses' perceptions of workplace culture in primary health care in Finland.

AIM: This study aimed to describe nurses' perceptions of workplace culture, especially in regard to stress levels, job satisfaction and the practice environment in primary health care. BACKGROUND: Health care is facing many challenges related to its attractiveness as a place of employment and the maintenance of a sufficient workforce supply. Previous studies report increasing rates of nurse job dissatisfaction and intentions to leave their current positions both in Finland and also globally. Improving workplace culture is thus vital in meeting the challenges related to recruitment and retention. METHODS: A cross-sectional descriptive design was used to describe nurses' perceptions of workplace culture. Data were collected by questionnaire from 22 units in nine primary healthcare organizations in Finland, and analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. RESULTS: Most of the respondents indicated that they were not certain whether their workplace culture was either positive or negative. Profession, age and work shift characteristics had an effect on the respondents' perceptions of workplace culture. Younger licensed practical and registered nurses assessed their workplace culture more positively, whereas older registered nurses and those working rotating rosters viewed workplace culture more negatively. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that both unit and demographic characteristics affect workplace culture. This survey highlights that a positive workplace culture is one of the key factors in retaining and recruiting nurses, and provides an essential evidence that may be considered by other healthcare organizations. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING AND HEALTH POLICY: Nurse managers and healthcare leaders need to address workload management and take into account the related variables that affect a unit's workplace culture.

The National Single Assessment Tool (SAT) a pilot study in older persons care-survey results.

Following a consultation and review process, the interRAI suite of assessment tools was chosen as the most suitable instrument for assessment of the care needs of older people in Ireland. We used previously validated questionnaires to examine the usability, practicality and acceptability of these tools to professionals, carers and clients in rural and urban acute, long-term care and community settings. Of the 45 professionals, 42-44 (93-98%) agreed or strongly agreed with 14 of 15 positive statements regarding the acceptability, clinical value and ease of use of the interRAl tools; 39 (87%) felt the terminology was consistent and familiar, although 35 (78%) felt some areas would require further explanation. Responses from carers (n = 15) and clients (n = 68) were similarly overwhelmingly positive regarding the experience of being assessed using these tools. These results support the clinical utility and practicality of using this approach to assess older people in Irish clinical practice.

Protein kinase A regulatory subunit isoforms regulate growth and differentiation in Mucor circinelloides: essential role of PKAR4.

The protein kinase A (PKA) signaling pathway plays a role in regulating growth and differentiation in the dimorphic fungus Mucor circinelloides. PKA holoenzyme is comprised of two catalytic (C) and two regulatory (R) subunits. In M. circinelloides, four genes encode the PKAR1, PKAR2, PKAR3, and PKAR4 isoforms of R subunits. We have constructed null mutants and demonstrate that each isoform has a different role in growth and differentiation. The most striking finding is that pkaR4 is an essential gene, because only heterokaryons were obtained in knockout experiments. Heterokaryons with low levels of wild-type nuclei showed an impediment in the emission of the germ tube, suggesting a pivotal role of this gene in germ tube emergence. The remaining null strains showed different alterations in germ tube emergence, sporulation, and volume of the mother cell. The pkaR2 null mutant showed an accelerated germ tube emission and was the only mutant that germinated under anaerobic conditions when glycine was used as a nitrogen source, suggesting that pkaR2 participates in germ tube emergence by repressing it. From the measurement of the mRNA and protein levels of each isoform in the wild-type and knockout strains, it can be concluded that the expression of each subunit has its own mechanism of differential regulation. The PKAR1 and PKAR2 isoforms are posttranslationally modified by ubiquitylation, suggesting another regulation point in the specificity of the signal transduction. The results indicate that each R isoform has a different role in M. circinelloides physiology, controlling the dimorphism and contributing to the specificity of cyclic AMP (cAMP)-PKA pathway.

A miniature condition in Brahman cattle is associated with a single nucleotide mutation within the growth hormone gene.

Miniature Brahman cattle at the USDA ARS Subtropical Agriculture Research Station in Brooksville, FL have normal proportioned growth but are approximately 70% of mature height and weight when compared with Brahman cattle in the same herd. Pedigree analyses suggest that the condition is inherited through a recessive allele. The miniature Brahman cattle in the Brooksville herd have been used for studies of growth and reproduction, but the underlying causative mutation is unknown. Presumably, the miniature condition could arise from a mutation in the GH gene. The objective, therefore, was to clone the GH cDNA from Brooksville miniature Brahman cattle, compare its sequence to normal Brahman cattle, and test the biological activity of the native GH protein. Messenger RNA was isolated from the pituitary, and a cDNA for the protein coding region of the GH gene was amplified by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from each of 2 miniature Brahman bulls. The cDNA were cloned into plasmid vectors, and top and bottom strands were sequenced by automated DNA sequencing. The sequence of both cDNA clones derived from miniature cattle differed from Bos indicus GH (GenBank AF034386) at base number 641 because there was a cytosine (C) instead of a thymine (T). The C to T change encoded a mutation (threonine to methionine) at amino acid 200 (T200M mutation). The mutation was confirmed by sequencing of an additional 2 miniature cattle and comparing their sequence to 2 normal cattle. The threonine is located in the fourth alpha helix of GH and is 1 of 8 amino acids that participate in binding of GH to the GH receptor. Twelve miniature Brahman and 9 normal Brahman cattle were tested by using a restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis that employed the BsmBI restriction enzyme (specific for the mutated nucleotide). The 12 miniature Brahman cattle were homozygous for the mutation (-/-). Seven of the normal Brahman cattle were homozygous for the wild-type allele (+/+), and 2 were heterozygous (+/-). When tested in a cell-based bioassay, GH isolated from the pituitary of -/- cattle (n=4) had approximately 60% activity when compared with GH isolated from the pituitary of +/+ cattle (n=5). In summary, miniature Brahman cattle were homozygous for a single nucleotide polymorphism that encodes a mutation in an amino acid involved in binding of GH to the GH receptor. Cattle of normal size had at least 1 copy of the normal GH allele. Threonine 200 in bovine GH is required for normal growth in cattle.

Two days of pulsatile GnRH infusion beginning 4 days before weaning in sows initiates a wave of follicular growth that is not sustained after weaning.

Intervals to estrus and ovulation in weaned sows depend partially on the diameter of ovarian follicles at weaning. The objective was to determine if follicular diameter in sows could be increased by a 48h period of GnRH infusion before weaning and whether this pre-weaning growth would advance follicular development after weaning. The posterior vena cava was cannulated in eight sows at 10+/-1 day after farrowing. Sows were randomly assigned to receive intravenous treatment with either 2mL of GnRH (1microg/mL; n=4) or 2mL of saline (n=4) every 0.5h for 48h beginning 94h before weaning. The average follicular diameter and the number of follicles within diameter classes were determined daily by ultrasonography. Serum LH concentrations increased on the first infusion day but serum LH was equal to control on the last infusion day (P<0.077). The GnRH infusion increased the average diameter of ovarian follicles (P<0.001). Serum estradiol increased (P<0.001) and serum FSH decreased (P<0.016) coincident with GnRH-induced follicular development but these changes were reversed within 24h after the end of the infusion period. Follicles that grew in response to GnRH regressed and were replaced by a new population of follicles within 4 days after weaning. Within the experimental model for the present study, a GnRH infusion increased follicular growth in lactating sows but follicles could not be sustained beyond the end of GnRH infusion.

Decreased follicular size during late lactation caused by treatment with charcoal-treated follicular fluid delays onset of estrus and ovulation after weaning in sows.

The weaning to estrus and weaning to ovulation intervals in sows are controlled by ovarian follicular growth after weaning. Longer intervals could be caused by smaller diameter follicles at weaning that take more time to reach a preovulatory size. We addressed this hypothesis by decreasing the diameter of follicular populations before weaning and then measuring follicular development and interval to estrus and ovulation after weaning. The posterior vena cava, cranial to the entry of the ovarian vein, was cathetered for blood sampling and infusion in 20 sows at 12 +/- 1 d after farrowing. Sows were assigned randomly to receive either 30 mL of charcoal-treated follicular fluid (FF, n = 9; a treatment known to decrease serum FSH and follicular diameter) or 30 mL of saline (n = 11) by venous infusion thrice daily (0700, 1500, and 2300 h) for 96 h beginning at 14 +/- 1 d after farrowing. Sows were weaned 48 h after the last infusion. Blood samples were collected for FSH analysis thrice daily beginning on the day of catheterization and continuing until ovulation. Follicular diameter was determined once daily by transrectal ultrasonography. A treatment x time interaction was detected for serum FSH (P < 0.001) and follicular diameter (P < 0.001) because serum FSH and the diameter of follicular populations decreased in FF sows during the infusion period. After the infusion period, serum FSH rebounded in FF sows, and follicles resumed growth but grew at the same rate as those of saline-treated sows, thus failing to achieve equivalent diameters relative to saline-treated sows on a given day after weaning. As a result, sows treated with FF had longer (P < 0.05) weaning to estrus (6.1 +/- 0.4 d) and weaning to ovulation (8.6 +/- 0.5 d) intervals compared with saline-treated sows (4.7 +/- 0.4 d and 7.2 +/- 0.4 d, respectively). We conclude that the diameter of the follicular population at weaning is one factor that controls interval to estrus and ovulation in sows. Small follicles at weaning cannot undergo compensatory growth and require additional time to reach a preovulatory size.

Partial feed restriction decreases growth hormone receptor 1A mRNA expression in postpartum dairy cows.

Uncoupling of the growth hormone (GH) axis in early postpartum dairy cows is correlated with a decrease in liver GH receptor (GHR) 1A mRNA and a decrease in liver GH receptor protein. Postpartum recoupling of the GH axis is also correlated with GHR 1A mRNA and GHR protein. We hypothesized that dry matter intake (DMI) partially controls the increase in GHR 1A mRNA postpartum. Prepartum Holstein dairy cows (n = 11) were offered feed ad libitum. After calving, 6 cows were fed 70% of their expected DMI (feed restriction) for 14 d and 5 cows were fed ad libitum (control). Both groups were fed ad libitum after d 14. Liver was biopsied prepartum and on d 1, 7, 14, and 21 postpartum; blood was sampled throughout the experimental period. Rate of increase in postpartum milk production was less for feed-restricted cows. The GHR 1A mRNA decreased from prepartum to d 1 postpartum and subsequently increased. Rate of postpartum increase in GHR 1A mRNA was less in feed-restricted cows. Diminished GHR 1A persisted for at least 7 d after feed-restricted cows returned to ad libitum feeding. Liver insulin-like growth factor-I mRNA concentrations decreased from prepartum to d 1 as well, but were similar for feed restricted and control thereafter. We concluded that DMI partially controls GHR 1A mRNA expression in early postpartum dairy cows and that the decrease in GHR 1A in response to feed restriction persisted for at least 1 wk after ad libitum feeding was restored.

The relationship between cement fatigue damage and implant surface finish in proximal femoral prostheses.

The majority of cemented femoral hip replacements fail as a consequence of loosening. One design feature that may affect loosening rates is implant surface finish. To determine whether or not surface finish effects fatigue damage accumulation in a bone cement mantle, we developed an experimental model of the implanted proximal femur that allows visualisation of damage growth in the cement layer. Five matte surface and five polished surface stems were tested. Pre-load damage and damage after two million cycles was measured. Levels of pre-load (shrinkage) damage were the same for both matte and polished stems; furthermore damage for matte vs. polished stems was not significantly different after two million cycles. This was due to the large variability in damage accumulation rates. Finite element analysis showed that the stress is higher for the polished (assumed debonded) stem, and therefore we must conclude that either the magnitude of the stress increase is not enough to appreciably increase the damage accumulation rate or, alternatively, the polished stem does not debond immediately from the cement. Significantly (P=0.05) more damage was initiated in the lateral cement compared to the medial cement for both kinds of surface finish. It was concluded that, despite the higher cement stresses with debonded stems, polished prostheses do not provoke the damage accumulation failure scenario.

Synchronisation of oestrus in dairy cows using prostaglandin F2alpha, gonadotrophin-releasing hormone, and oestradiol cypionate.

An oestrous synchronisation protocol was developed for use in lactating dairy cows using PGF(2alpha), GnRH, and oestradiol cypionate (ECP). In experiment 1, lactating dairy cows received two injections of PGF(2alpha) (on days 0 and 11) (PP; n=10) or two injections of PGF(2alpha) (days 0 and 11) and 100 microg of GnRH on day 3 (PGP; n=10). In experiment 2, cows were treated with PGP (n=7), or PGP and 1 mg of ECP at the same time (PGPE(0); n=7) or 1 day after the second PGF(2alpha) injection (PGPE(1); n=7). In experiment 3, 101 lactating dairy cows in a commercial herd were assigned to one of three treatments; PP, PGP, or PGPE(1). Follicular growth was measured by ultrasound in experiments 1 and 2. Every cow (experiments 1, 2, and 3) was blood sampled at selected intervals for progesterone and oestradiol assays and inseminated at oestrus. In experiment 1, a higher percentage of GnRH-treated cows ovulated after the first PGF(2alpha) injection (90% versus 50%; P<0.05). The GnRH-treated cows tended to have a larger dominant follicle present at the time of the second PGF(2alpha) injection (16.5+/-0.5 mm versus 15.0+/-0.7 mm; P<0.10). The percentage of cows that ovulated after the second PGF(2alpha) injection was similar (60%). In experiment 2, cows treated with ECP had higher peak preovulatory concentrations of oestradiol in plasma (6.99+/-0.63 versus 3.63+/-0.63; P<0.01) following the second PGF(2alpha) injection and a higher percentage ovulated (86% versus 43%; P<0.05). A higher percentage of PGPE(1)-treated cows in experiment 3 were observed in standing oestrus and ovulated after the second PGF(2alpha) injection (standing oestrus, 26.4, 34.3, and 62.6%, P<0.01; ovulated, 56, 63, and 78%, P<0.05; PP, PGP, and PGPE(1), respectively). In conclusion, the PGP protocol increased the number of cows that ovulated after the first PGF(2alpha) injection and produced a more mature dominant follicle at the time of the second PGF(2alpha) injection. Adding ECP to PGP (PGPE(1)) enhanced the expression of oestrus and increased ovulation percentage. The combination of PGP and ECP is potentially a new method to routinely synchronise oestrus and ovulation in dairy cows.

Minimum solid area models applied to the prediction of Young's modulus for cancellous bone.

In developing models for the mechanical behavior of cancellous bone, accurate prediction of Young's modulus as a function of the pore fraction and morphology is a requirement. Previous workers have suggested models which provide good statistical fits, but most of these models are highly idealized, with no treatment of the actual morphology of the porosity. In the field of engineering ceramics, simple minimum solid area models have been developed over the past four decades to describe the mechanical properties of porous structural ceramics. This paper applies these models to data for cancellous bone, and it is shown that one, developed specifically for high porosity materials, gives realistic predictions of tissue modulus and a good statistical fit to well-established data. This model should prove to be useful in biomechanical analyses involving cancellous bone tissue.

Plasma hormones and expression of growth hormone receptor and insulin-like growth factor-I mRNA in hepatic tissue of periparturient dairy cows.

Growth hormone plays a central role in the change in nutrient metabolism that occurs during the initiation of lactation. The actions of growth hormone are mediated by the growth hormone receptor (GHR) whose mRNA is present in three alternatively spliced forms (GHR 1A, 1B, and 1C). Liver-specific GHR 1A mRNA is transiently decreased around parturition, but the exact timing of the decline is not known. Our objective was to generate a daily profile for total GHR (GHRtot; all GHR transcripts), GHR 1A, and IGF-I mRNA expression in liver of periparturient Holstein cows and evaluate these daily mRNA profiles relative to daily profiles for periparturient hormones and metabolites. Liver biopsies and blood samples (n = 139) were collected from 65 Holstein cows at the University of Missouri Dairy Farm. At least two cows were sampled on each day from 14 d before to 14 d after parturition. Total cellular RNA was isolated and reverse transcribed to cDNA. Target cDNA were measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Plasma was assayed for progesterone, estradiol, insulin, growth hormone, IGF-I, glucose, and nonesterified fatty acids. The GHR 1A mRNA declined 2 d before parturition, was lowest 3 to 4 d after parturition, and then increased. The IGF-I mRNA declined 1 d after parturition, was lowest 2 to 5 d after parturition and then increased. Total GHR mRNA was not affected by day. The decrease in GHR 1A mRNA was associated with a decrease in progesterone and an increase in estradiol shortly before parturition. A detailed profile of GHR 1A, IGF-I, and GHRtot mRNA expression during the periparturient period was provided. The decreases in GHR 1A and IGF-I during the transition period occurred immediately before (GHR 1A) or shortly after (IGF-I) parturition. Rapid changes in placental and ovarian steroids before parturition were coincident with changes in GHR 1A mRNA.

Growth hormone (GH) binding and expression of GH receptor 1A mRNA in hepatic tissue of periparturient dairy cows.

Growth hormone (GH) plays a role in metabolic adaptations that occur during lactogenesis. Liver GH receptor transcript (GHR 1A) is transiently decreased near parturition and may reduce GH-dependent signaling leading to low blood insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) concentrations in periparturient dairy cattle. We hypothesized that the decrease in GHR 1A mRNA at parturition was associated with decreased GH binding (i.e., GHR protein concentration) in liver. Blood and liver biopsy samples were collected from 12 Holstein cows on d -12 +/- 1, 3, and 17 relative to parturition. Total cellular RNA was isolated from a sub-sample of liver. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reactions were used to measure GHR 1A, total GHR, IGF-I, and cyclophilin mRNA. Microsomal membranes were isolated from the remaining liver tissue and assayed for 125I-bGH binding. Plasma was assayed for GH and IGF-I concentrations. Liver GHR 1A mRNA, specific 125I-bGH binding to liver membranes, liver IGF-I mRNA, and plasma IGF-I concentrations were lower on d 3 relative to d -12. The GHR 1A mRNA, 125I-bGH binding, and plasma GH concentrations increased on d 17 but liver IGF-I mRNA and plasma IGF-I concentrations did not change between d 3 and 17. Total GHR mRNA and cyclophilin mRNA amounts were similar on d -12, 3, and 17. Across all days, 125I-bGH specific binding in liver was highly correlated with liver GHR 1A mRNA (R2 = 0.68) but not with total GHR mRNA. Saturation binding analysis showed that GHR concentration (Bmax) in liver on d 3 had decreased to only 5% of the amount on d -12. We conclude that decreased GHR 1A mRNA leads to decreased GHR protein concentration in liver. Reduced GHR in liver likely contributes to a decrease in liver IGF-I production and reduced concentrations of IGF-I in blood of periparturient cows.

Ingredients for change: revisiting a conceptual framework.

Finding ways to deliver care based on the best possible evidence remains an ongoing challenge. Further theoretical developments of a conceptual framework are presented which influence the uptake of evidence into practice. A concept analysis has been conducted on the key elements of the framework--evidence, context, and facilitation--leading to refinement of the framework. While these three essential elements remain key to the process of implementation, changes have been made to their constituent sub-elements, enabling the detail of the framework to be revised. The concept analysis has shown that the relationship between the elements and sub-elements and their relative importance need to be better understood when implementing evidence based practice. Increased understanding of these relationships would help staff to plan more effective change strategies. Anecdotal reports suggest that the framework has a good level of validity. It is planned to develop it into a practical tool to aid those involved in planning, implementing, and evaluating the impact of changes in health care.

The qualities and skills of practice developers.

AIM: To explore and describe the activities and approaches that constitute practice development by providing an insight into the qualities and skills exhibited by staff in practice development roles. METHOD: This involved examining 177 articles, plus data collected during focus group interviews with 60 staff around the UK and telephone interviews with 25 clinical staff. The focus groups and telephone interviews formed part of an earlier published study Garbett and McCormack (2002). RESULTS: A range of skills and qualities were highlighted. These include being effective, having vision, being motivated, empathic, experiential, cognitive political, communicative, facilitative and possessing clinical skills. CONCLUSION: The work of practice developers is of central importance in the light of NHS policy developments, such as the NHS Plan or the response to the Bristol inquiry.

Side rails as physical restraints in the care of older people: a management issue.

This article explores the use of side rails within the context of physical restraint in gerontological practice. It is debated that side rails can be considered as a form of physical restraint if the individual cannot voluntarily remove/lower the device if he/she wishes to do so. The value of side rails as a protective medium is debated with regard to their association with injuries sustained as a result. Side rails should be used with caution and within a risk management context. Frailty should not be an indicator for the use of side rails, an individualized approach to determine patient's suitability to side rails is advocated.

Reduced insulin-like growth factor-I after acute feed restriction in lactating dairy cows is independent of changes in growth hormone receptor 1A mRNA.

Growth hormone receptor (GHR) and insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) mRNA decrease in the liver of dairy cows at parturition. Epinephrine is released and feed intake is decreased at the same time. The objective of this study was to determine whether feed restriction and (or) administration of epinephrine could recapitulate the changes in the hepatic GHR 1A and IGF-I mRNA that occur at parturition. Eight lactating cows were randomly assigned to one of two rations (ad libitum or restricted). The cows assigned to the restricted ration were fed 75, 60, 60, and 25% of feed consumed by the ad libitum cows on successive days to mimic the changes in feed intake around parturition. Liver samples were collected by needle biopsy before and after feed restriction. Cows received either 0.02 mg/kg of epinephrine or saline approximately 24 h before the second liver biopsy so that a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments was created. Feed restriction increased plasma nonesterified fatty acids and liver triglyceride percentages and decreased plasma IGF-I concentrations. The decrease in plasma IGF-I after feed restriction was associated with a decrease in IGF-I mRNA in feed-restricted cows. The amount of GHR 1A mRNA did not change after feed restriction. Epinephrine treatment did not affect the amount of GHR 1A or IGF-I mRNA. We conclude that the decrease in feed intake at parturition may be partially responsible for the decrease in IGF-I but may not cause the decrease in GHR 1A.