Glutamate levels in the medial prefrontal cortex of healthy pregnant women compared to non-pregnant controls.

Very little is known about maternal cerebral changes during pregnancy. Since there is an increased risk for major depression during pregnancy and postpartum, it is important to understand the structural and neurochemical changes that occur in the brain during pregnancy. Using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) (3 T field strength), glutamate (Glu) levels were measured in the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) of 21 healthy gravid subjects 2-3 weeks before their due date (6.74 ± 1.39), and in 14 non-pregnant healthy controls during their follicular phase (8.53 ± 1.55). Water quantified MPFC Glu levels were decreased in pregnant women (p < 0.01). We also observed a 13.9% decrease in percentage grey matter (%GM) (p < 0.01) in our MPFC voxel. As Glu is mostly found in GM, we repeated the statistical analysis after adjustment for %GM and found that the difference in Glu levels was no longer statistically significant when adjusted for %GM (p = 0.10). This investigation is the only systematic direct investigation of brain tissue composition and Glu levels in pregnant women. The main finding of this investigation is the decreased %GM in healthy pregnant women compared to non-pregnant women. These findings of decreased %GM in pregnancy may be responsible for the frequent complaints by pregnant women of cognitive difficulties also described as pregnesia.

Martian subsurface cryosalt expansion and collapse as trigger for landslides.

On Mars, seasonal martian flow features known as recurring slope lineae (RSL) are prevalent on sun-facing slopes and are associated with salts. On Earth, subsurface interactions of gypsum with chlorides and oxychlorine salts wreak havoc: instigating sinkholes, cave collapse, debris flows, and upheave. Here, we illustrate (i) the disruptive potential of sulfate-chloride reactions in laboratory soil crust experiments, (ii) the formation of thin films of mixed ice-liquid water "slush" at -40° to -20°C on salty Mars analog grains, (iii) how mixtures of sulfates and chlorine salts affect their solubilities in low-temperature environments, and (iv) how these salt brines could be contributing to RSL formation on Mars. Our results demonstrate that interactions of sulfates and chlorine salts in fine-grained soils on Mars could absorb water, expand, deliquesce, cause subsidence, form crusts, disrupt surfaces, and ultimately produce landslides after dust loading on these unstable surfaces.

Location and Setting of the Mars InSight Lander, Instruments, and Landing Site.

Knowing precisely where a spacecraft lands on Mars is important for understanding the regional and local context, setting, and the offset between the inertial and cartographic frames. For the InSight spacecraft, the payload of geophysical and environmental sensors also particularly benefits from knowing exactly where the instruments are located. A ~30 cm/pixel image acquired from orbit after landing clearly resolves the lander and the large circular solar panels. This image was carefully georeferenced to a hierarchically generated and coregistered set of decreasing resolution orthoimages and digital elevation models to the established positive east, planetocentric coordinate system. The lander is located at 4.502384°N, 135.623447°E at an elevation of -2,613.426 m with respect to the geoid in Elysium Planitia. Instrument locations (and the magnetometer orientation) are derived by transforming from Instrument Deployment Arm, spacecraft mechanical, and site frames into the cartographic frame. A viewshed created from 1.5 m above the lander and the high-resolution orbital digital elevation model shows the lander is on a shallow regional slope down to the east that reveals crater rims on the east horizon ~400 m and 2.4 km away. A slope up to the north limits the horizon to about 50 m away where three rocks and an eolian bedform are visible on the rim of a degraded crater rim. Azimuths to rocks and craters identified in both surface panoramas and high-resolution orbital images reveal that north in the site frame and the cartographic frame are the same (within 1°).

A 'Cut-Down-To-Stop' intervention for smokers who find it hard to quit: a qualitative evaluation.

BACKGROUND: English Stop Smoking Services primarily deliver behavioural interventions to support abrupt quit attempts. Recent evidence suggests an alternative approach could be offered to clients involving a more gradual reduction of cigarettes smoked leading to complete abstinence, known as 'Cut Down To Stop' (CDTS). The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of stop smoking practitioners and service users who participated in a pilot study of a CDTS service. METHODS: The CDTS intervention was pilot tested in a Stop Smoking Service in London, England. As part of the CDTS intervention clients who were still smoking 2 weeks after their quit date were offered tailored advice, medication and support to reduce their current smoking by half, with the aim to stop smoking altogether within a six-month period. A qualitative evaluation was conducted involving a focus group discussion with nine practitioners involved in the delivery of the CDTS intervention and telephone interviews with 18 CDTS service users. Thematic analysis was performed. RESULTS: Service users and practitioners were very positive about their experience with the CDTS intervention. The intervention was found to be an effective way of keeping clients engaged with the service and was felt to increase the likelihood they might quit and/or re-engage in service for future quit attempts. Elements that contributed to the attractiveness of the CDTS intervention included: 1) the trust and empathetic relationship developed between service users, practitioners and their referring primary care provider; 2) time and flexibility for service users to engage in the quitting process at their own pace; 3) setting progressive goals and building service user confidence; 4) the opportunity to experiment with quit smoking medications; and, 5) the on-going contact with the practitioner/service. CONCLUSIONS: Service users who are not successful with quitting abruptly may benefit from a CDTS intervention. This study highlights the important role of 'relationships', time and 'flexible' service delivery models in engaging service users who are not initially successful with quitting. The findings of this study have the potential to inform decision-making regarding the value of the CDTS approach for the English Stop Smoking Service and cessation services worldwide.

Smoking is associated with pessimistic and avoidant beliefs about cancer: results from the International Cancer Benchmarking Partnership.

BACKGROUND: Smoking cessation is the key cancer prevention behaviour for smokers; nonetheless, smokers can still benefit from earlier diagnosis of cancer. However, fewer smokers participate in screening despite their increased risk, which may reflect different beliefs about cancer. METHODS: A UK population-representative sample of ⩾50 year-olds (n=6965) was surveyed using the Awareness and Beliefs about Cancer measure. These analyses examine six items on cancer beliefs (e.g., 'cancer can often be cured'), and four on help-seeking barriers (e.g., 'I would be too embarrassed'). RESULTS: Smokers were more likely to hold pessimistic cancer beliefs than never-smokers or former-smokers on four of six items. For example, 34% agreed 'a cancer diagnosis is a death sentence', compared with 24% of non/former-smokers (P<0.001). More smokers (18%) than non/former-smokers (11%) would not want to know if they had cancer (P<0.01). The only barrier to symptomatic help-seeking differing by smoking status was 'worry about what the doctor might find' (36% vs 28%, P<0.01). Associations were independent of demographics, self-rated health and cancer experience. CONCLUSIONS: Smokers held more pessimistic and avoidant beliefs about cancer, which could deter early-detection behaviour. A better understanding of these beliefs is needed to increase engagement in early diagnosis by this high-risk group.

Genetic counseling training and certification in Australasia.

The development of standards for training and certification is essential to the credibility and integrity of a developing profession. Training and certification of genetic counselors in Australasia has undergone a detailed review during the past few years, resulting in changes to the way certification is obtained. This paper presents an overview of the process of developing a robust training and certification program which reflects the social and cultural environment of genetic counselors working in Australasia. A brief history of the development of the profession in Australasia is provided, followed by a detailed discussion of the recent development of Masters programs and a portfolio of work required for certification. The importance of consultation within the profession and with our colleagues in the field of human genetics is considered, and we provide a discussion of defining moments that occurred during the review. This paper is intended to provide a detailed description of genetic counselor training and certification in Australasia. We anticipate that our insights into the process of redevelopment of training and certification guidelines may be helpful for genetic counselors working in countries where certification requirements are being developed.

Rapid and extensive surface changes near Titan's equator: evidence of April showers.

Although there is evidence that liquids have flowed on the surface at Titan's equator in the past, to date, liquids have only been confirmed on the surface at polar latitudes, and the vast expanses of dunes that dominate Titan's equatorial regions require a predominantly arid climate. We report the detection by Cassini's Imaging Science Subsystem of a large low-latitude cloud system early in Titan's northern spring and extensive surface changes (spanning more than 500,000 square kilometers) in the wake of this storm. The changes are most consistent with widespread methane rainfall reaching the surface, which suggests that the dry channels observed at Titan's low latitudes are carved by seasonal precipitation.

Seasonal erosion and restoration of Mars' northern polar dunes.

Despite radically different environmental conditions, terrestrial and martian dunes bear a strong resemblance, indicating that the basic processes of saltation and grainfall (sand avalanching down the dune slipface) operate on both worlds. Here, we show that martian dunes are subject to an additional modification process not found on Earth: springtime sublimation of Mars' CO(2) seasonal polar caps. Numerous dunes in Mars' north polar region have experienced morphological changes within a Mars year, detected in images acquired by the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Dunes show new alcoves, gullies, and dune apron extension. This is followed by remobilization of the fresh deposits by the wind, forming ripples and erasing gullies. The widespread nature of these rapid changes, and the pristine appearance of most dunes in the area, implicates active sand transport in the vast polar erg in Mars' current climate.

Relapse prevention in UK Stop Smoking Services: current practice, systematic reviews of effectiveness and cost-effectiveness analysis.

BACKGROUND: Reducing smoking is a chief priority for governments and health systems like the UK National Health Service (NHS). The UK has implemented a comprehensive tobacco control strategy involving a combination of population tobacco control interventions combined with treatment for dependent smokers through a national network of NHS Stop Smoking Services (NHS SSS). OBJECTIVES: To assess the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of relapse prevention in NHS SSS. To (1) update current estimates of effectiveness on interventions for preventing relapse to smoking; (2) examine studies that provide findings that are generalisable to NHS SSS, and which test interventions that might be acceptable to introduce within the NHS; and (3) determine the cost-effectiveness of those relapse preventions interventions (RPIs) that could potentially be delivered by the NHS SSS. DATA SOURCES: A systematic review of the literature and economic evaluation were carried out. In addition to searching the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group register of trials (2004 to July 2008), MEDLINE, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, EMBASE, PsycINFO, the Science Citation Index and Social Science Citation Index were also searched. REVIEW METHODS: The project was divided into four distinct phases with different methodologies: qualitative research with a convenience sample of NHS SSS managers; a systematic review investigation the efficacy of RPIs; a cost-effectiveness analysis; and a further systematic review to derive the relapse curves for smokers receiving evidence-based treatment of the type delivered by the NHS SSS. RESULTS: Qualitative research with 16 NHS SSS managers indicated that there was no shared understanding of what relapse prevention meant or of the kinds of interventions that should be used for this. The systematic review included 36 studies that randomised and delivered interventions to abstainers. 'Self-help' behavioural interventions delivered to abstainers who had achieved abstinence unaided were effective for preventing relapse to smoking at long-term follow-up [odds ratio (OR) 1.52, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.15 to 2.01]. The following pharmacotherapies were also effective as RPIs after their successful use as cessation treatments: bupropion at long-term follow-up (pooled OR 1.49, 95% CI 1.10 to 2.01); nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) at medium- (pooled OR 1.56, 95% CI 1.16 to 2.11) and long-term follow-ups (pooled OR 1.33, 95% CI 1.08 to 1.63) and one trial of varenicline also indicated effectiveness. The health economic analysis found that RPIs are highly cost-effective. Compared with 'no intervention'; using bupropion resulted in an incremental quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) increase of 0.07, with a concurrent NHS cost saving of 68 pounds; for NRT, spending 12 pounds resulted in a 0.04 incremental QALY increase; varenicline resulted in a similar QALY increase as NRT, but at almost seven times the cost. Extensive sensitivity analyses demonstrated that cost-effectiveness ratios were more sensitive to variations in effectiveness than cost and that for bupropion and NRT, cost-effectiveness generally remained. Varenicline also demonstrated cost-effectiveness at a 'willingness-to-pay' threshold of 20,000 pounds per QALY, but exceeded this when inputted values for potential effectiveness were at the lower end of the range explored. For all drugs, there was substantial relapse to smoking after treatment courses had finished. Quit attempts involving NRT appeared to have the highest early relapse rates, when trial participants would be expected to still be on treatment, but for those involving bupropion and varenicline little relapse was apparent during this time. LIMITATIONS: The qualitative research sample was small. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the totality of evidence, RPIs are expected to be effective and cost-effective if incorporated into routine treatment within the NHS SSS. While staff within the NHS SSS were largely favourably inclined towards providing RPIs, guidance would be needed to encourage the adoption of the most effective RPIs, as would incentives that focused on the importance of sustaining quit attempts beyond the currently monitored 4-week targets.

The effects of plant traits and phylogeny on soil-to-plant transfer of 99Tc.

Assessments of the behaviour of (99)Tc in terrestrial environments necessitate predicting soil-to-plant transfer. An experiment with 116 plant taxa showed that (99)Tc transfer to plants was positively related to plant dry weight but negatively related to % dry matter and age at exposure. Activities of (99)Tc analysed by hierarchical ANOVA coded with an angiosperm phylogeny revealed significant effects, with 55% of the variance between species explained at the Ordinal level and above. Monocots had significantly lower transfer of (99)Tc than Eudicots, within which Caryophyllales > Solanales > Malvales > Brassicales > Asterales > Fabales. There was a significant phylogenetic signal in soil-to-plant transfer of (99)Tc. This phylogenetic signal is used to suggest that, for example, a nominal Tc Transfer Factor of 5 could be adjusted to 2.3 for Monocots and 5.3 for Eudicots.

Dietary beliefs and behaviour of a UK Somali population.

BACKGROUND: Somalis comprise one of the largest asylum seeking populations in the UK, yet very little is known about how this migration has affected traditional attitudes towards food or eating habits. The present study was commissioned to examine the health behaviours (smoking, diet and exercise) of a Somali population in London; the study focuses on the dietary beliefs and self-reported eating behaviours of these subjects. METHODS: Because of the documented difficulty of engaging black and minority ethnic groups in research, a mixed methodology was used, involving focus groups to elicit specific dietary themes and a questionnaire survey to attempt to quantify community concordance with these themes. Eight focus groups were held in London in 2006; there were two women's and six men's groups, with 62 participants in total. The questionnaire was developed following analysis of the focus group discussions and opportunistically distributed via local Somali community organisations (77 respondents). RESULTS: The typical diet of focus group participants largely consisted of rice, pasta and red meat. There was low consumption of fruit and vegetables reported among the focus group participants: of survey respondents 97% reported eating less than two pieces of fruit, and 92% less than two portions of vegetables, a day. CONCLUSIONS: Fruit and vegetable consumption was low and there was uncertainty about what constituted a healthy diet and a stated desire for education around this. Cultural factors such as the traditional Somali diet, social associations of food and lack of appropriate information are issues that need to be addressed.

A closer look at water-related geologic activity on Mars.

Water has supposedly marked the surface of Mars and produced characteristic landforms. To understand the history of water on Mars, we take a close look at key locations with the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, reaching fine spatial scales of 25 to 32 centimeters per pixel. Boulders ranging up to approximately 2 meters in diameter are ubiquitous in the middle to high latitudes, which include deposits previously interpreted as finegrained ocean sediments or dusty snow. Bright gully deposits identify six locations with very recent activity, but these lie on steep (20 degrees to 35 degrees) slopes where dry mass wasting could occur. Thus, we cannot confirm the reality of ancient oceans or water in active gullies but do see evidence of fluvial modification of geologically recent mid-latitude gullies and equatorial impact craters.

Athabasca Valles, Mars: a lava-draped channel system.

Athabasca Valles is a young outflow channel system on Mars that may have been carved by catastrophic water floods. However, images acquired by the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment camera onboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter spacecraft reveal that Athabasca Valles is now entirely draped by a thin layer of solidified lava-the remnant of a once-swollen river of molten rock. The lava erupted from a fissure, inundated the channels, and drained downstream in geologically recent times. Purported ice features in Athabasca Valles and its distal basin, Cerberus Palus, are actually composed of this lava. Similar volcanic processes may have operated in other ostensibly fluvial channels, which could explain in part why the landers sent to investigate sites of ancient flooding on Mars have predominantly found lava at the surface instead.

Meter-scale morphology of the north polar region of Mars.

Mars' north pole is covered by a dome of layered ice deposits. Detailed ( approximately 30 centimeters per pixel) images of this region were obtained with the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). Planum Boreum basal unit scarps reveal cross-bedding and show evidence for recent mass wasting, flow, and debris accumulation. The north polar layers themselves are as thin as 10 centimeters but appear to be covered by a dusty veneer in places, which may obscure thinner layers. Repetition of particular layer types implies that quasi-periodic climate changes influenced the stratigraphic sequence in the polar layered deposits, informing models for recent climate variations on Mars.

Hyperion's sponge-like appearance.

Hyperion is Saturn's largest known irregularly shaped satellite and the only moon observed to undergo chaotic rotation. Previous work has identified Hyperion's surface as distinct from other small icy objects but left the causes unsettled. Here we report high-resolution images that reveal a unique sponge-like appearance at scales of a few kilometres. Mapping shows a high surface density of relatively well-preserved craters two to ten kilometres across. We have also determined Hyperion's size and mass, and calculated the mean density as 544 +/- 50 kg m(-3), which indicates a porosity of >40 per cent. The high porosity may enhance preservation of craters by minimizing the amount of ejecta produced or retained, and accordingly may be the crucial factor in crafting this unusual surface.

Pyroclastic activity at Home Plate in Gusev Crater, Mars.

Home Plate is a layered plateau in Gusev crater on Mars. It is composed of clastic rocks of moderately altered alkali basalt composition, enriched in some highly volatile elements. A coarsegrained lower unit lies under a finer-grained upper unit. Textural observations indicate that the lower strata were emplaced in an explosive event, and geochemical considerations favor an explosive volcanic origin over an impact origin. The lower unit likely represents accumulation of pyroclastic materials, whereas the upper unit may represent eolian reworking of the same pyroclastic materials.

Cassini observes the active south pole of Enceladus.

Cassini has identified a geologically active province at the south pole of Saturn's moon Enceladus. In images acquired by the Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS), this region is circumscribed by a chain of folded ridges and troughs at approximately 55 degrees S latitude. The terrain southward of this boundary is distinguished by its albedo and color contrasts, elevated temperatures, extreme geologic youth, and narrow tectonic rifts that exhibit coarse-grained ice and coincide with the hottest temperatures measured in the region. Jets of fine icy particles that supply Saturn's E ring emanate from this province, carried aloft by water vapor probably venting from subsurface reservoirs of liquid water. The shape of Enceladus suggests a possible intense heating epoch in the past by capture into a 1:4 secondary spin/orbit resonance.

General practitioners' views on and referral to NHS smoking cessation services.

OBJECTIVES: Increasing the rate of smoking cessation remains a major public health goal. To help achieve this in the UK, National Health Service (NHS) smoking cessation services have been established to provide treatment for smokers wanting help with stopping. Referrals from general practitioners (GPs) are crucial to the success of these clinics. This study aimed to assess English GPs' self-reported interactions with, and attitudes towards, their local smoking cessation services. STUDY DESIGN: Postal survey assessing the attitudes of GPs in England towards, and formal interactions with, NHS smoking cessation services. METHODS: A questionnaire was posted to a random sample of 544 GPs in England (response rate 63%). GPs' self-reported interactions with smoking cessation services and their attitudes towards these clinics were assessed. GPs were also asked what factors determined whether they prescribed nicotine-replacement therapy (NRT) and Buproprion (Zyban), and what was the extent and nature of their smoking cessation interventions with their patients. RESULTS: Most GPs (94%) reported that they were aware of the specialist smoking cessation service in their area. Seventy percent of GPs supported the continuation of current funding for specialist smoking cessation services. Seventy percent reported that they referred patients to these services, and 55% had staff within their practices trained as community smoking cessation advisors. Most GPs (79%) reported 'clinical need' as a determinant of whether they prescribed NRT/Zyban, and a few GPs cited 'budgetary constraints' as a factor (15%). Ninety-eight percent of GPs reported that they record smoking status when new patients join their practice, and they advise smokers to stop 'at least every now and then'. CONCLUSIONS: GPs support the existence and continuation of specialist smoking cessation services, and most reported that they refer patients to them. Virtually every GP reported that they record smoking status when new patients join their practice, and they advise smokers to stop 'at least every now and then'.