A preliminary study of the effect of imaginary sexual stimulation on the perceived covariation between freedom and responsibility.

The authors evaluated subjective estimates of the relationship between freedom and responsibility under predictions made in accordance with cognitive-experiential self-theory (CEST; V. Denes-Raj & S. Epstein, 1994; S. Epstein, A. Lipson, C. Holstein, & E. Huh, 1992; S. Epstein, R. Pacini, V. Denes-Raj, & H. Meier, 1996; L. A. Kirkpatrick & S. Epstein, 1992). Half of the participants viewed sexually stimulating primes before making judgments. The other participants viewed neutral stimuli before making judgments. Two dependent measures were used: A set of alternate-forms propositions measured perceived relationships between the variables, and response latencies were used to evaluate the hypothesis that persons operating experientially would make judgments faster than persons operating rationally. Results indicated a significant effect for the priming condition with respect to the within-subject dependent variable. In accordance with predictions, further analysis indicated that positive contingency items were endorsed less often by primed participants, and negative contingency items were endorsed more often by primed participants. Results are in line with predictions afforded by the CEST model. Implications are discussed.

The equivalence of contingency structure for intuitive covariation judgments about height, weight, and body fat.

In a complete between-subjects design, 576 respondents judged covariations of problems framed around height, weight, and body fat. A verbal measure was used, consisting of propositional statements representing relationships between two of the variables, as well as two types of response options: true or false, and a 7-point, bipolar, Likert-type scale. Consistent with previous findings, weight and body fat were unambiguously judged as if positively correlated; there were indications of a perceived negative correlation of height and body fat; and there was no evidence that participants regarded height and weight as positively correlated. Furthermore, there was no reliable evidence in support of framing effects. However, there were indications of influence for conditional format. These findings are discussed relative to previous and ongoing research efforts, and it is concluded that it may be inappropriate to regard variations in conditional format as parallel items. Measures involving all possible variations are considered fundamentally unbiased and consistent with I. Ajzen's (1988) principle of aggregation.

Intuitive covariation assessment of the illusory correlation.

Most of the research concerned with the illusory correlation is modeled after the seminal work of D. L. Hamilton and R. K. Gifford (1976). However, S. A. Haslam and C. McGarty (1994) have voiced concerns over the dependent measures used within this paradigm. Therefore, in this study, the authors tested a new dependent variable that has high face validity. This measure was modeled after the work of J. R. McGahan and R. Wight (1989) and consisted of a set of propositional statements representing either the illusory correlation, the contingency opposite the illusory correlation, or the noncontingency. A second purpose of this study was to validate other studies that have used dependent measures modeled after the work of J. R. McGahan and R. Wight (1989). Demonstrating that this measure can be used to detect a well-documented phenomenon (i.e., the illusory correlation) would strengthen the results and conclusions from other studies. To this end, results from 2 experiments indicate that this measure does provide a valid alternative to those measures that are commonly used in illusory correlation studies. The results thereby give credence to other studies that have used similar dependent measures.

Association of need for cognition with judgments of height, weight, and body fat covariation.

559 college students, assessed for Need for Cognition, judged whether height, weight, and body fat were correlated using judgment probes that controlled for framing and conditional format. A principal components analysis of Need for Cognition scores identified two factors underlying the scale, which may be important in judgment outcome. In addition, judgments about correlations among height, weight, and body fat were similar to those of previous studies. Furthermore, the hypothesis that Need for Cognition would be related to the tendency to judge a negative correlation between height and body fat, i.e., a possible illusory correlation, was confirmed. Results are discussed relative to the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion.

Length, weight, and width: covariation assessments based on haptic exploration.

Intuitive judgements about covariations of length, weight, and width were assessed in two experiments using a series of propositional statements. In Exp. 1, only a priori judgements were rendered, whereas in Exp. 2 blindfolded participants physically manipulated and described a series of objects varying on these dimensions before rendering their judgements. Analyses indicated participants judged weight and width as positively correlated, length and weight as uncorrelated and, to some extent, length and width as negatively correlated. If judgements are rendered after the haptic exploration phase, weight and width are (again) judged as positively correlated, and length and weight were still judged as uncorrelated. However, after the database intervention. length and width were judged as positively correlated. Results are discussed relative to research on reasoning about covariation and belief perseveration as well as perceived covariations between height, weight, and body fat.

Height, weight, and body fat: assessments of covariation based on visual information or reported correlations.

College students' intuitive judgments about covariations between height, weight, and body fat were assessed in three experiments using responses to a series of propositional statements as the dependent variable. In Exp. 1, judgments were rendered without explicit exposure to a prior database. In Exps. 2 and 3, however, databases were studied prior to these judgments. Remarkable consistencies in judgments of weight and body fat, height and weight as well as of height and body fat were obtained across experiments. At best, there was little evidence that the databases influenced the judged covariations among these variables. Whereas judgments about weight and body fat were unambiguous and consistent with the actual positive correlation between weight and body fat, judgments about height and weight as well as height and body fat were less clearcut. What was clear, however, was that these judgments were highly similar. Implications of these findings from previous research that suggest that presence of a perceived negative correlation between height and body fat are discussed.

Effects of a common linguistic misrepresentation on judgments about the relationship between height and weight.

Researchers have debated whether laypeople can detect covariation and have tried to identify conditions that might facilitate or retard this ability. Language, especially linguistic representation of variables, seems important to consider since misrepresentation appears to be relatively common in linguistic exchanges. In the present theory-based experiment, 16 subjects were asked to make judgments about the relationship between height and either weight (heavy or light) or bodyfat (fat or thin). Data provided evidence of a powerful illusory association, that is, if tall, then thin; if short, then fat, and there was no compelling evidence to suggest that subjects understood the relationship between height and weight.