Cocaine Use and Incarceration: A Rare Cause of Bowel Ischemia, Perforation, and Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage.

Cocaine use is rising in persons ≥50 years old and in black and socioeconomically disadvantaged communities. Cocaine-induced bowel ischemia and gastrointestinal injury are deadly findings that have been previously described in the literature. In this report, we present a case of small bowel ischemia, perforation, and upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage co-occurring in a 62-year-old incarcerated male with a 15-year history of cocaine use. The patient presented from jail, peritonitic in septic shock, and was promptly taken for emergent surgical exploration. He was found to have massive fecal peritonitis secondary to full-thickness ischemia and perforation of the jejunum and ileum. Immediately postoperatively, the patient developed a large volume of hemorrhage from multiple gastric and duodenal ulcers refractory to endoscopic intervention, ultimately requiring emergent embolization of the gastroduodenal artery. His course was further complicated by severe septic shock with a blunted response to catecholamine vasopressors. Early recognition and aggressive treatment of the gastrointestinal complications and the unique critical care challenges associated with cocaine use facilitated this patient's eventual full recovery.

Unsupervised procedures by surgical trainees: a windfall for private insurance at the expense of graduate medical education.

BACKGROUND: Surgical faculty cannot always be present while trainees perform minor procedures. Fees are not obtained for these unsupervised services because Medicare rules do not allow residents and fellows to bill. Medicare already supplements hospitals via medical education funds and thus reimbursement for trainee services would constitute double billing. Private insurance companies, however, do not supplement trainees' salaries and thus benefit when they are not charged for these procedures. The objective is to determine whether significant revenue is lost to private insurers for unsupervised procedures performed by surgical trainees. METHODS: We retrospectively evaluated a prospective database of procedures performed by residents and fellows from March 1998 through 2007. All procedures were entered by the trainees into a computerized electronic note system. Unsupervised procedures were not billed to insurance carriers. RESULTS: During the study period, 14,497 minor procedures were performed without attending supervision, of which 13,343 had valid current procedural terminology codes. Total charges for these procedures would have been $10,096,931. For patients with private insurance companies (PICs), $6,876,000 could have been billed. Using our historic collection ratios, $2,269,083 in revenue was lost, or $232,726 annually. CONCLUSIONS: Trainees perform a significant number of unsupervised procedures on patients with private insurance without charge. This pro bono service represents a significant amount of lost income for teaching institutions. Private insurance companies benefit financially from Medicare billing regulations without contributing to education. Billing for these services might help offset the costs of graduate medical education.

First report on safety and efficacy of hetastarch solution for initial fluid resuscitation at a level 1 trauma center.

BACKGROUND: For logistics, the US Army recommends Hextend (Hospira; 6% hetastarch in buffered electrolyte, HET) for battlefield resuscitation. To support this practice, there are laboratory data, but none in humans. To test the hypothesis that HET is safe and effective in trauma, we reviewed our first 6 months of use at a civilian level 1 trauma center. STUDY DESIGN: From June 2008 to December 2008, trauma patients received standard of care (SOC) +/- 500 to 1,000 mL of HET within 2 hours of admission at surgeon discretion. Each case was reviewed, with waiver of consent. RESULTS: There were 1,714 admissions; 805 received HET and 909 did not. With HET versus SOC, overall mortality was 5.2% versus 8.9% (p = 0.0035) by univariate analysis. Results were similar after penetrating injury only (p = 0.0016) and in those with severe injury, defined by Glasgow Coma Scale <9 (p = 0.0013) or Injury Severity Score >26 (p = 0.0142). After HET, more patients required ICU admission (40.9% vs. 34.5%; p = 0.0334) and transfusions of blood (34.4% vs. 20.2%; p = 0.0014) or plasma (20.7% vs. 12.2%; p = 0.0251), but there were no treatment-related differences in prothrombin time or partial thromboplastin time. The 24-hour urine outputs and requirements for blood, plasma, and other fluids were similar. However, increased early deaths with SOC implicate possible selection bias. If that factor was controlled for with multivariate analysis, the same trends were present, but the apparent treatment effects of HET were no longer statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: In the first trial to date in hemodynamically unstable trauma patients, and the largest trial to date in any population of surgical patients, initial resuscitation with HET was associated with reduced mortality and no obvious coagulopathy. A randomized blinded trial is necessary before these results can be accepted with confidence.

A review of ureteral injuries after external trauma.

INTRODUCTION: Ureteral trauma is rare, accounting for less than 1% of all urologic traumas. However, a missed ureteral injury can result in significant morbidity and mortality. The purpose of this article is to review the literature since 1961 with the primary objective to present the largest medical literature review, to date, regarding ureteral trauma. Several anatomic and physiologic considerations are paramount regarding ureteral injuries management. LITERATURE REVIEW: Eighty-one articles pertaining to traumatic ureteral injuries were reviewed. Data from these studies were compiled and analyzed. The majority of the study population was young males. The proximal ureter was the most frequently injured portion. Associated injuries were present in 90.4% of patients. Admission urinalysis demonstrated hematuria in only 44.4% patients. Intravenous ureterogram (IVU) failed to diagnose ureteral injuries either upon admission or in the operating room in 42.8% of cases. Ureteroureterostomy, with or without indwelling stent, was the surgical procedure of choice for both trauma surgeons and urologists (59%). Complications occurred in 36.2% of cases. The mortality rate was 17%. CONCLUSION: The mechanism for ureteral injuries in adults is more commonly penetrating than blunt. The upper third of the ureter is more often injured than the middle and lower thirds. Associated injuries are frequently present. CT scan and retrograde pyelography accurately identify ureteral injuries when performed together. Ureteroureterostomy, with or without indwelling stent, is the surgical procedure of choice of both trauma surgeons and urologists alike. Delay in diagnosis is correlated with a poor prognosis.

Is the FAST exam reliable in severely injured patients?

INTRODUCTION: Highly sensitive and accurate for the detection of injuries requiring intervention in haemodynamically unstable patients, FAST may underestimate intra-abdominal injuries in stable patients with blunt abdominal trauma. Diminished accuracy of ultrasound has been reported in different cohorts of multiple injured patients. We hypothesised that multiple injured patients with a high Injury Severity Score (ISS) will have a decreased accuracy of FAST for the assessment of blunt abdominal trauma. METHODS: Data from the trauma registry of a Level 1 trauma centre were retrospectively reviewed. All haemodynamically stable blunt trauma patients who underwent both FAST and CT scan of abdomen from January 1, 2000 to January 1, 2005 were included in the cohort. All patients were divided into three groups according to their ISS: Group 1 included patients with an ISS from 1 to 14, Group 2 included patients with an ISS from 16 to 24, and Group 3 consisted of patients with ISS>or=25. RESULTS: 3181 patients with blunt abdominal trauma included into the study were divided into the three groups according to the ISS. The mean ISS was 7.9+/-3.97, 19.6+/-2.48 and 41.3+/-11.95 in Groups 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The accuracy of ultrasound was 90.6% in the group of patients with the highest ISS (>or=25) compared with 97.5 and 97.1 for Groups 1 and 2 (p<0.001). Similarly, ultrasound had a significantly lower sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV for patients in Group 3 compared with the first two groups (p<0.001). There was a significantly lower sensitivity in Group 2 compared with Group 1 (p<0.001), but no differences in specificity, accuracy, PPV or NPV were demonstrated. CONCLUSION: Patients with high ISS are at increased risk of having ultrasound-occult injuries and have a lower accuracy of their ultrasound examination than patients with low and moderate ISS.

Heart rate variability as a triage tool in patients with trauma during prehospital helicopter transport.

BACKGROUND: Prehospital triage of patients with trauma is routinely challenging, but more so in mass casualty situations and military operations. The purpose of this study was to prospectively test whether heart rate variability (HRV) could be used as a triage tool during helicopter transport of civilian patients with trauma. METHODS: After institutional review board approval and waiver of informed consent, 75 patients with trauma requiring prehospital helicopter transport to our level I center (from December 2007 to November 2008) were prospectively instrumented with a 2-Channel SEER Light recorder (GE Healthcare, Milwaukee, WI). HRV was analyzed with a Mars Holter monitor system and proprietary software. SDNN (standard deviation [SD] of the normal-to-normal R-R interval), as an index of HRV, was correlated with prehospital trauma triage criteria, base deficit, seriousness of injury, operative interventions, outcome, and other data extracted from the patients' medical records. There were no interventions or medical decisions based on HRV. Data were excluded only if there was measurement artifact or technical problems with the recordings. RESULTS: The demographics were mean age 47 years, 63% men, 88% blunt, 25% traumatic brain injury, 9% mortality. Prehospital SDNN predicted patients with base excess < or = -6, those defined as seriously injured and benefiting from trauma center care, as well as patients requiring a life-saving procedure in the operating room. No other available data, including prehospital en-route vital signs, predicted any of these. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value were 80%, 75%, 33%, 96%, respectively, with and an overall accuracy of 76% for predicting a life-saving intervention in the operating room. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first demonstration that prehospital HRV (specifically SDNN) predicts base excess and operating room life-saving opportunities. HRV triages and discriminates severely injured patients better than routine trauma criteria or en-route prehospital vital signs. HRV may be a useful civilian or military triage tool to avoid unnecessary helicopter evacuation for minimally injured patients. A prospective, randomized trial in a larger patient population is indicated.

Electronic medical records and mortality in trauma patients.

BACKGROUND: The Electronic Medical Record (EMR) has been proposed as a way to reduce medical errors. It can also be used to document clinician involvement, which may affect outcomes. We sought to determine whether the EMR could be used to improve attending involvement in daily care, enhance surgical revenue, and lower mortality of patients with trauma. METHODS: In 2004, the Trauma Division adopted a software program (CARE, Miami, FL) for creating an EMR and implemented a weekly report that was distributed to all members of the division and also to Departmental decision makers. Before initiation, explicit instructions were given to all surgeons that daily notes in the EMR were expected and would be followed by weekly reports. Before this, most notes were recorded in the paper chart and were difficult to track. Differences among proportions were determined with z test or chi, where appropriate with significance defined as p < 0.05. RESULTS: With implementation of the EMR, daily and weekly reports were immediately available. Both attending surgeon documented notes and divisional annual revenue increased. A reduction in mortality was also observed. CONCLUSION: The EMR can be used to change attending surgeon involvement in patient care and procedures. The increase in attending involvement was associated with an increase in revenue. Use of the EMR was associated with a significant reduction in hospital mortality.

Trauma surgeon mortality rates correlate with surgeon time at institution.

BACKGROUND: Trauma centers have been created to bring traumatized patients together with experienced surgeons. We reviewed our outcomes to determine if mortality rates for high Injury Severity Scores (>or= 35) correlate with surgeon experience at our trauma center. STUDY DESIGN: Using our prospectively collected database, we compared our results with mean mortality for high-volume American College of Surgeon-certified trauma centers reporting to the National Trauma Data Bank. Mortality rates for our 11 trauma surgeons were correlated with years of experience as faculty surgeons at our institution during a 2-year period. Statistical analysis was done with chi-square or weighted linear regression; significance was defined as p < 0.05. RESULTS: Our trauma center mortality rates were significantly below the mean rates of National Trauma Data Bank at all levels of injury (chi-square, p < 0.05). Despite this success, there was a significant correlation between years of experience as a surgeon at our institution and improved outcomes for patients with an Injury Severity Score >or= 35 (weighted linear regression, p < 0.05). It took, on average, 7.9 years of experience at our trauma center to reach benchmark mortality rates. CONCLUSIONS: Mortality rates for severely injured patients correlate significantly with surgeon experience at our institution. The training process does not end with fellowship or surgical residency, and surgeons new to an institution should be closely monitored and mentored to minimize mortality rates of severely injured patients. Even at a very high volume trauma center with overall results substantially better than mean expected survival, we can demonstrate that experience makes a difference.

Outcomes of Acinetobacter baumannii infection in critically ill surgical patients.

BACKGROUND: Multi-drug resistant (MDR) organisms in intensive care units (ICUs) are a growing concern. The emergence of several infections with MDR Acinetobacter baumannii prompted a review of cases and evaluation of the efficacy of intervention. OBJECTIVE: To determine the rate of clinical cure, the incidence of drug resistance, and the mortality rate associated with A. baumannii infection. METHOD: Retrospective review of A. baumannii infections in three surgical ICUs between January, 2004 and November, 2005. Infection was identified in 291 patients, 20 of whom were excluded because of incomplete documentation. Of the remaining 271 patients, 71% were male, and the mean age was 47 +/- 18 years (range 13-90 years). RESULTS: Patients had a mean length of stay in the ICU of 14 days (range 0-136 days) before infection. The initial positive cultures were from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BAL) in 72.3%, blood in 16.2%, a catheter tip in 6.3%, urine in 1.8%, wound in 2.2%, and abscess in 1.1%. In 46.9% of patients, the first culture was polymicrobial. The Acinetobacter isolates were resistant or intermediate-resistant to imipenem-cilastatin in 81.2% of cases; 19.9% were resistant to all drugs except colistin, and two were resistant to all tested drugs. Colistin was used in 75.6% of patients (intravenous 61.5%, nebulized 38.5%). The mean duration of treatment was 13 +/- 8.9 days (range 0-56 days), and clinical cure was achieved in 73.8% of patients. Recurrent infection after initial cure was found in 19.2% of patients. There was no significant difference in clinical cure rates between patients treated with colistin and those treated with other culture-directed drugs (75.1% vs. 69.7%), or between patients treated with intravenous vs. nebulized colistin (72.4% vs. 79.5%). The mortality rate was 26.2% for the entire group and was significantly higher in the subgroup of transplant patients (n = 31) (64.5% vs. 21.4%; p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The majority of A. baumannii isolates were MDR, and a significant proportion were sensitive only to colistin. Treatment of A. baumannii infection with colistin is effective by both intravenous and nebulized routes of administration. However, infection with A. baumannii in critically ill surgical patients is associated with a high mortality rate, particularly in transplant patients.

Survival after prolonged length of stay in a trauma intensive care unit.

BACKGROUND: Intensive care unit (ICU) patients comprise a small proportion of patients in the hospital but consume a disproportionate amount of hospital resources. In our cost-conscious environment, it becomes necessary to address the overall performance of our ICUs. This study was designed to analyze survival among trauma ICU (TICU) patients with a length of stay (LOS) >1 month. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the prospectively collected Trauma Registry Database between January 1, 1995, and January 1, 2005, in an adult TICU from a Level I trauma center. Data on demographics, mechanism of injury, Injury Severity Score (ISS), LOS, and in-hospital survival was collected. Descriptive statistics were calculated and student's t test and comparison of proportions were performed where appropriate. Logistic regression was performed to analyze independent predictors of mortality with significance when p < 0.05. RESULTS: The initial cohort consisted of 3,556 patients with a mean LOS of 9.8 days (range, 0-274 days). Sixty-nine percent were men, mean age was 44.3 years (range, 0-104 years), and mean ISS was 18 (range, 0-75). The mechanism of injury was blunt trauma in 75%, burns in 15%, and penetrating trauma in 10%. Overall survival was 87%. A total of 339 patients had a LOS >1 month. There was no difference in survival between patients with a LOS <1 month and those with a LOS >1 month (87.1% versus 86.7%). Patients >50 years old (n = 1,251) had a longer LOS (12.5 versus 8.4 days; p < 0.001) and increased mortality (22.1% versus 8.0%; p < 0.001). Age remained an independent predictor of mortality when controlling for ISS. CONCLUSION: In our TICU population, extended LOS did not preclude a significant chance of survival. Patients >50 years old had longer LOS and increased mortality. This suggests that the utilization of resources in patients with a prolonged LOS is reasonable and justified.

Trauma deaths in the first hour: are they all unsalvageable injuries?

BACKGROUND: With the advent of trauma systems, time to definitive care has been decreased. We hypothesized that a subset of patients who are in extremis from the time of prehospital transport to arrival at the trauma center, and who ultimately die early after arrival, may in fact have a potentially salvageable single-organ injury. METHODS: We reviewed all deaths that occurred in the first hour after hospital admission. Trauma registry, medical records, and autopsy reports for 556 patients were evaluated. RESULTS: The median time to arrival was 39 minutes, and the median Injury Severity Score was 29. Blunt injuries (53%) were most commonly auto-accident injuries (134 of 285 patients; 47%). Penetrating wounds (42%) were mostly gunshot wounds to the chest (73 of 233 patients; 31%). For patients with initial vital signs, the most common cause of death was isolated brain injury (26 patients; 28%). Possibly survivable injuries (single organ or vessel) occurred in 35 (38%) patients, of which 4 were isolated spleen injuries (4%). CONCLUSIONS: Some patients with potentially survivable single organ injuries did not have associated head injuries. An aggressive approach is warranted on patients with detectable vital signs on at least one occasion in the field but who arrive at the trauma center in extremis.

Randomized controlled clinical trial of point-of-care, limited ultrasonography for trauma in the emergency department: the first sonography outcomes assessment program trial.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Annually, 38 million people are evaluated for trauma, the leading cause of death in persons younger than 45 years. The primary objective is to assess whether using a protocol inclusive of point-of-care, limited ultrasonography (PLUS), compared to usual care (control), among patients presenting to the emergency department (ED) with suspected torso trauma decreased time to operative care. METHODS: The study was a randomized controlled clinical trial conducted during a 6-month period at 2 Level I trauma centers. The intervention was PLUS conducted by verified clinician sonographers. The primary outcome measure was time from ED arrival to transfer to operative care; secondary outcomes included computed tomography (CT) use, length of stay, complications, and charges. Regression models controlled for confounders and analyzed physician-to-physician variability. All analyses were conducted on an intention-to-treat basis. Results are presented as mean, first-quartile, median, and third-quartile, with multiplicative change and 95% confidence intervals (CIs), or percentage with odds ratio and 95% CIs. RESULTS: Four hundred forty-four patients with suspected torso trauma were eligible; 136 patients lacked consent, and attending physicians refused enrollment of 46 patients. Two hundred sixty-two patients were enrolled: 135 PLUS patients and 127 controls. There were no important differences between groups. Time to operative care was 64% (48, 76) less for PLUS compared to control patients. PLUS patients underwent fewer CTs (odds ratio 0.16) (0.07, 0.32), spent 27% (1, 46) fewer days in hospital, and had fewer complications (odds ratio 0.16) (0.07, 0.32), and charges were 35% (19, 48) less compared to control. CONCLUSION: A PLUS-inclusive protocol significantly decreased time to operative care in patients with suspected torso trauma, with improved resource use and lower charges.

What does ultrasonography miss in blunt trauma patients with a low Glasgow Coma Score (GCS)?

BACKGROUND: The role of ultrasound (US) as a screening tool for the evaluation of blunt abdominal trauma is still controversial. Determining the types of missed injuries and the accuracy of US in patients with a low GCS will improve the evaluation of these blunt trauma patients. METHODS: Prospectively collected data from the trauma registry of a Level I trauma center was reviewed. RESULTS: 7,952 patients were included in the study. US examination had an accuracy of 89%, sensitivity of 77%, specificity of 97%, positive predictive value (PPV) of 78%, and negative predictive value (NPV) of 98%. GCS correlated with ISS and base deficit levels. US examination had a significantly lower accuracy in patients with a low GCS and in women. CONCLUSION: The sensitivity and specificity of US examination is similar in those with normal and low GCS. Therefore ultrasonographic examination may be considered a good screening tool for the evaluation of patients with blunt abdominal trauma, but its accuracy is diminished in patients with a low GCS. Further imaging may be warranted in these patients.

The nonoperative management of penetrating internal jugular vein injury.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to review the outcome of nonoperative treatment for penetrating internal jugular vein (IJ) injuries in a continuous series of prospectively identified, hemodynamically stable patients. METHODS: All penetrating neck injuries assessed from February 1, 2004, to August 31, 2004, were prospectively identified. Patients without an indication for urgent neck exploration underwent diagnostic assessment with multislice helical computed tomographic angiography with or without vascular ultrasonography. All IJ injuries with no other indication for surgical exploration were treated nonoperatively. All patients were discharged home and followed up for a minimum of 1 week to document outcomes. RESULTS: From 51 neck injuries penetrating the platysma, 7 required urgent neck exploration, during which 2 IJ injuries were ligated. Forty-four patients underwent multislice helical computed tomographic angiography. Eight IJ injuries (two gunshot wounds and six stab wounds) with no other indication for neck exploration were identified and managed nonoperatively. One external wound was in zone 1, five were in zone 2, one was in zone 3, and one traversed all three zones. The average length of stay was 4.5 days. At follow-up, ranging from 1 week to 5 months, all patients were asymptomatic, and no patient required delayed operation for IJ injury. CONCLUSIONS: In hemodynamically stable patients with no other indication for exploration, the nonoperative management of penetrating jugular vein injuries should be considered as a safe alternative.

Predictors of mortality in trauma patients.

The purpose of this study was to ascertain risk factors for death from trauma. The large cohort allows for simultaneous evaluation of known mortality risk factors along with controlling for factors to assess the influence of each independently. Individually, base deficit, temperature, hypotension, age, and injury severity have been shown to be associated with an increased risk of death. However, in the English literature, there is no data on the independent predictive power and interaction of these risk factors. A review of trauma registry parameters from 1995 to 2000 was used. Demographics, injury severity, physiological and hematological parameters, and time data were evaluated in a univariate analysis. Variables significantly associated with mortality were entered into a stepwise backward multiple logistic regression. There were 1276 deaths (8.9%) with 25 per cent of the deaths within 3 hours. The top four predictors of mortality in this group were partial thromboplastin time (OR 3.37, 95% CI: 2.51-4.52), positive head computed tomography result (OR, 2.47; 95% CI, 1.95-3.04), initial hemoglobin (OR, 1.69; 95% CI, 1.23-2.31), base deficit (OR, 1.62; 95% CI, 1.29-2.04), and trauma resuscitation bay systolic blood pressure (OR, 1.45; 95% CI, 1.11-1.88). We conclude that prognostic indicators of all-cause mortality after trauma, which remain independent in the presence of all other factors and are potentially treatable, included low hemoglobin, elevated prothrombin and partial thromboplastin time, low scene and trauma bay systolic pressure, and elevated base deficit. The independent indicators of mortality, which are untreatable, included head injury, increasing age, and Injury Severity Score.

Surgeon-performed ultrasound in the ICU setting.

Evaluation of critically ill patients is often challenging due to altered sensorium, underlying disease, and the presence of multiple drains or monitoring devices. In such circumstances, the ability of physicians to perform ultrasound examinations in the intensive care unit provides a useful diagnostic and therapeutic adjunct. In this article,we review the application of surgeon-performed ultrasonography in the evaluation and management of critically ill patients.

A prospective evaluation of ultrasonography for the diagnosis of penetrating torso injury.

BACKGROUND: Ultrasound (US) is commonly used for the diagnosis of hemoperitoneum after blunt abdominal trauma, but the value of US as an aid for identification of operative lesions after penetrating trauma is not well documented. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the accuracy of US for the evaluation of penetrating torso trauma and to assess the impact of this information on patient management. METHODS: We conducted a prospective cohort observational study of consecutive penetrating torso patients at a Level I trauma center. RESULTS: During the 6-month trial period, 177 victims of penetrating torso trauma were assessed by our trauma teams. Ninety-two patients had stab wounds, 84 patients had gunshot wounds, and 1 patient had a puncture wound. All 28 patients with positive US examination had an exploratory laparotomy or thoracotomy (one patient had more than one procedure), resulting in 26 therapeutic operations. There were 149 negative US examinations, but in this group, 36 patients underwent laparotomy or thoracotomy, and 28 had therapeutic operations. The overall accuracy of the US examination was therefore 85%, the sensitivity was 48%, and the specificity was 98%. There were only three patients who had their initial management altered by a positive US examination. CONCLUSION: The US examination lacks sensitivity to be used alone in determining operative intervention after gunshot or stab wounds. Rarely does US information contribute to the management of patients with penetrating abdominal injuries.

Diagnostic peritoneal lavage through an abdominal stab wound.

Diagnostic peritoneal lavage (DPL) is one of the most useful tools in the diagnosis of intraperitoneal injuries secondary to stab wounds. The lavage catheter is inserted into the peritoneal cavity through a surgical incision or a blind puncture. Complications related to the catheter insertion were previously reported in both techniques. We describe 2 cases in which the lavage catheter was inserted through the stab wound itself after local wound exploration clearly demonstrated violation of the peritoneum. We suggest that in anterior abdominal stab wounds, the DPL can be safely and effectively performed through the stab wound if penetration to the peritoneum is diagnosed.

Early coagulopathy predicts mortality in trauma.

BACKGROUND: Coagulopathy and hemorrhage are known contributors to trauma mortality; however, the actual relationship of prothrombin time (PT) and partial thromboplastin time (PTT) to mortality is unknown. Our objective was to measure the predictive value of the initial coagulopathy profile for trauma-related mortality. METHODS: We reviewed prospectively collected data on trauma patients presenting to a Level I trauma center. A logistic regression analysis was performed of PT, PTT, platelet count, and confounders to determine whether coagulopathy is a predictor of all-cause mortality. RESULTS: From a trauma registry cohort of 20103 patients, 14397 had complete disposition data for initial analysis and 7638 had complete data for all variables in the final analysis. The total cohort was 76.2% male, the mean age was 38 years (range, 1-108 years), and the median Injury Severity Score was 9. There were 1276 deaths (all-cause mortality, 8.9%). The prevalence of coagulopathy early in the postinjury period was substantial, with 28% of patients having an abnormal PT (2994 of 10790) and 8% of patients having an abnormal PTT (826 of 10453) on arrival at the trauma bay. In patients with disposition data and a normal PT, 489 of 7796 died, as compared with 579 of 2994 with an abnormal PT (6.3% vs. 19.3%; chi2 = 414.1, p < 0.001). Univariate analysis generated an odds ratio of 3.6 (95% confidence interval [CI], 3.15-4.08; p < 0.0001) for death with abnormal PT and 7.81 (95% CI, 6.65-9.17; p < 0.001) for deaths with an abnormal PTT. The PT and PTT remained independent predictors of mortality in a multiple regression model, whereas platelet count did not. The model also included the independent risk factors age, Injury Severity Score, scene and trauma-bay blood pressure, hematocrit, base deficit, and head injury. The model generated an adjusted odds ratio of 1.35 for PT (95% CI, 1.11-1.68; p < 0.001) and 4.26 for PTT (95% CI, 3.23-5.63; p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The incidence of coagulation abnormalities, early after trauma, is high and they are independent predictors of mortality even in the presence of other risk factors. An initial abnormal PT increases the adjusted odds of dying by 35% and an initial abnormal PTT increases the adjusted odds of dying by 326%.