VX211, a vigorous new walnut hybrid clone with nematode tolerance and a useful resistance mechanism.

VX211 is a highly vigorous Paradox hybrid clone that outgrew other walnut seedlings in the presence of nematodes. A four-year macroplot trial involving Paradox VX211 and a standard Paradox selection, AX1, demonstrated that the damage threshold level of Pratylenchus vulnus on commercially available walnut rootstocks is < 1 nematode/250 cm³ of soil. Using 1 as the initial population level (Pi) within an inoculation zone of 80 L of soil, the P. vulnus population level increased 2,500-fold in the first year of growth. Three years after inoculation soil population levels of P. vulnus on VX211 were significantly reduced compared to that of the moderately vigorous AX1. Growth of VX211 was 35% greater than that of AX1 regardless of the Pi. Examination of stained roots revealed that feeding and reproduction by P. vulnus on VX211 was primarily ectoparasitic. This is the first report on a new walnut rootstock that can be readily cloned, has high vigor, exhibits tolerance to low population levels of P. vulnus, reduces nematode feeding and reproduction within the root terminus, and is currently available to California growers.

Detection and Investigation of Soil Biological Activity against Meloidogyne incognita.

Greenhouse experiments with two susceptible hosts of Meloidogyne incognita, a dwarf tomato and wheat, led to the identification of a soil in which the root-knot nematode population was reduced 5- to 16-fold compared to identical but pasteurized soil two months after infestation with 280 M. incognita J2/100 cm(3) soil. This suppressive soil was subjected to various temperature, fumigation and dilution treatments, planted with tomato, and infested with 1,000 eggs of M. incognita/100 cm(3) soil. Eight weeks after nematode infestation, distinct differences in nematode population densities were observed among the soil treatments, suggesting the suppressiveness had a biological nature. A fungal rRNA gene analysis (OFRG) performed on M. incognita egg masses collected at the end of the greenhouse experiments identified 11 fungal phylotypes, several of which exhibited associations with one or more of the nematode population density measurements (egg masses, eggs or J2). The phylotype containing rRNA genes with high sequence identity to Pochonia chlamydosporia exhibited the strongest negative associations. The negative correlation between the densities of the P. chlamydosporia genes and the nematodes was corroborated by an analysis using a P. chlamydosporia-selective qPCR assay.

Variability in Reproduction of Four Populations of Meloidogyne incognita on Six Cultivars of Cotton.

A range of virulence levels was found in four populations of Meloidogyne incognita collected from cotton fields of the Punjab region of Pakistan. The most virulent population was associated with development of larger gall size, larger giant cell formation and improved success of juveniles transitioning into reproducing adults. The most virulent nematode population, MI-78, emanated from cotton cultivar NIAB-78. This cotton cultivar also possessed the greatest level of resistance to the three other nematode populations evaluated in this study. The source of plant resistance was not evident during root penetration by second-stage juveniles (J2), but became apparent as nematode feeding was attempted. Although one other cotton cultivar, CIM-506, could also be designated as showing a level of resistance, none of the other cultivars reduced any nematode stage by more than 75% of that achieved on the best host. These data provide an example of a single cotton cultivar that could have short-term utility in field settings. The data also provide insight for future cotton breeding programs.

Nematode and grape rootstock interactions including an improved understanding of tolerance.

Sixteen cultivars of grape were screened over a two-year period in the presence or absence of 10 different nematode populations. Populations of Meloidogyne spp., Xiphinema index, and Mesocriconema xenoplax developed more rapidly and caused greater damage than populations of X. americanum and Tylenchulus semipenetrans. Populations of mixed Meloidogyne spp. having a history of feeding on grape were among the fastest developing populations. Tolerance to nematode parasitism appeared to be based on different mechanisms. Slow developing, less pathogenic nematode populations often stimulated vine growth, thus vines appeared to possess tolerance. Likewise, cultivars selected for nematode resistance often stimulated vine growth when fed upon by the nematode. However, tolerance sources that resulted from nematode resistance are vulnerable due to the occurrence of populations that break resistance mechanisms. Growth of cultivars with phylloxera (Daktalospharia vitifoliae) resistance was unchanged by the presence of nematodes, indicating that phylloxera resistance may provide a useful source of nematode relief. These and several additional sources of specific tolerance are discussed.

Management of the Citrus Nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans.

Of the many nematode species that parasitize citrus, Tylenchulus semipenetrans is the most important on a worldwide basis. Management of the citrus nematode remains problematic as no one tactic gives adequate control of the nematode. An overall management strategy must include such components as site selection, use of non-infected nursery stock, use of at lease one post-plant nematode control tactic, and careful management of other elements of the environment that may stress the trees. Nematicides continue to play a key role in management of this pest. Optimum results require careful attention to application techniques.

Population Characteristics and Dosage Trajectory Analysis for Mesocriconema xenoplax in California Prunus Orchards.

The Mesocriconema xenoplax population increased exponentially in a newly planted peach orchard. The rate of increase was greater on Nemaguard than on Lovell rootstock and was reduced by postplant nematicides. Population levels were more stable in an established almond orchard on Nemaguard rootstock. All life stages of the nematode were present year round; lower ratios of juveniles to adults in summer suggested adverse effects of temperature and dry soil. Also in summer, there was a smaller proportion of the population in the upper 30 cm of soil than at greater depths. Nematode dosage, average nematode density multiplied by accumulated degree-days (physiological time) of the sampling interval, was useful in quantifying nematode stress on trees and as an indicator of the nematode management effectiveness. The annual trajectory of the nematode dosage could be determined by two samplings, one in spring and one in fall. A nematode predator, the parasitic fungus Hirsutella rhossiliensis, did not regulate ring nematode populations in the newly planted orchard; a recovery period was necessary for increase in the prevalence of parasitism.

Induction of tolerance to root-knot nematode by oxycom.

Oxycom applications increased plant growth and population levels of Meloidogyne incognita on susceptible tomato. A single Oxycom drench at 2,500 ppm applied 7 days prior to inoculation with M. incognita provided remediation of plant growth measured 63 days later. This occurred without reducing nematode population levels. Follow-up drenches at 2,500 ppm at 10-day intervals stunted shoots and roots (P = 0.05). The same application rates at 20-day intervals did not reduce plant growth. Plants receiving multiple drenches had more galls (P = 0.05), females, and second-stage juveniles (J2) per root system compared to plants receiving only the single treatment. Foliar mass and height of plants treated with a single pre-inoculation Oxycom drench were indistinguishable from plants without nematodes. Oxycom treatments activated signaling pathways for plant defense as confirmed by detection of elevated defense gene transcripts in root tissues. The finding of increased reproduction of root-knot nematode without loss of plant growth is consistent with the definition of induced tolerance. Frequency, rate, and timing of applications need further study with other nematodes and various field settings.

Developmental Response of a Resistance-Breaking Population of Meloidogyne arenaria on Vitis spp.

Pre- and post-infection resistance mechanisms expressed by Vitis rootstocks RS-9 and Teleki 5C against second-stage juveniles (J2) of resistance-breaking populations of Meloidogyne arenaria were observed and correlated with juvenile development and nematode reproduction. Cabernet Sauvignon grape was used as a susceptible control for comparison. Similar numbers of J2 penetrated Teleki 5C and Cabernet Sauvignon roots. Root-tip necrosis, a hypersensitive reaction, occurred in both rootstocks but was effective in reducing J2 penetration only in RS-9 roots. Juvenile development occurred in roots of all three rootstocks by 13 days after inoculation, with the highest number of swollen juveniles present in Cabernet Sauvignon roots. Cortical necroses restricted the ability of J2 to reach vascular bundles, thereby restricting access to successful feeding sites and leading to dead or underdeveloped juveniles in RS-9 roots. At 35 days after inoculation, only 5% and 25% of the initial inoculum in RS-9 and Teleki 5C roots, respectively, reached the adult stage compared to 32% in Cabernet roots. Giant cells were of sufficient size to support nematode development to maturity in Cabernet. Cell necrosis and underdeveloped giant cells were apparent in the resistant rootstocks, which delayed development of adults and limited egg production. Inadequate development of giant cells may provide long-term population reductions in woody-rooted perennial crops.

Penetration and development of Meloidogyne arenaria on two new grape rootstocks.

Penetration, development, and reproduction of a virulent 'Harmony' population of Meloidogyne arenaria was studied on two nematode-resistant grape rootstocks 10-17A and 6-19B. 'Cabernet Sauvignon' was used as a susceptible control for comparison. Plants were inoculated with 100 freshly hatched second-stage juveniles (J2) of M. arenaria. Greater numbers of J2 penetrated roots of 'Cabernet' than 10-17A, and none penetrated roots of 6-19B 4 days after inoculation (DAI). At 7 DAI, vermiform J2 advanced to sausage-shaped J2 in roots of 'Cabernet,' penetrated roots of 6-19B, and had egressed from roots of 10-17A. Resistant rootstocks expressed hypersensitive responses to penetrating J2 along the root epidermis, among the cortical cells, and along the differentiating vascular bundles. At 13 DAI, 68% of the J2 had attained globose stage in roots of 'Cabernet,' whereas there was no development of vermiform J2 in roots of the other two rootstocks. The nematodes reproduced only in roots of 'Cabernet.' Lack of development of J2 in roots of the two resistant grape rootstocks might be the result of a hypersensitive response to J2 feeding.

Reproductive Variability of Field Populations of Meloidogyne spp. on Grape Rootstocks.

Variability in penetration, development, and reproduction of two resistance-breaking field pathotypes (pt.) of Meloidogyne arenaria, M. incognita, and a population of mixed Meloidogyne spp. virulent to grape hosts were compared on two resistant Vitis rootstocks 'Freedom' and 'Harmony' in separate tests. 'Cabernet Sauvignon' was included as a susceptible host to all four nematode populations. Secondstage juveniles (J2) of the mixed population failed to penetrate Freedom roots. By contrast, 6% of J2 in the M. incognita population penetrated Freedom roots but did not develop beyond the swollen J2 stage. The two resistance-breaking populations of M. arenaria differed in their virulence except on susceptible roots of Cabernet Sauvignon. More J2 of M. arenaria pt. Freedom penetrated Freedom roots and reached adult stage than did M. arenaria pt. Harmony. Later life stages of M. arenaria pt. Freedom occurred earlier and in greater numbers in Harmony roots than did M. arenaria pt. Harmony. Reproduction of M. arenaria pt. Freedom was greater in Freedom and Harmony roots than M. arenaria pt. Harmony. Thus, one population of M. arenaria is highly virulent and the other is moderately virulent.

Effect of Lime on Criconemella xenoplax and Bacterial Canker in Two California Orchards.

In a peach orchard with an initial soil pH of 4.9, preplant application of 0, 13.2, 18.2, 27.3, or 54.2 kg lime/tree site altered soil pH (range after 1 year = 4.8-7.3) but did not affect numbers of Criconemella xenoplax or tree circumference. Liming also failed to reduce the incidence of bacterial canker, which affected 17% of the trees by the sixth year after planting. Four years after planting, numbers of C. xenoplax exceeded 400/100 cm(3) soil, regardless of treatment. Trees with higher densities of C. xenoplax had a higher incidence of canker. The nematophagous fungus Hirsutella rhossiliensis was not detected until the fourth year. Thereafter, the incidence of H. rhossiliensis and percentage C. xenoplax parasitized by H. rhossiliensis increased, but the increases lagged behind increases in numbers of nematodes. In an almond orchard with an initial soil pH of 4.6, preplant application of 0, 6.4, 12.8, or 25.0 kg lime/tree site altered soil pH (range after 1 year = 4.7-7.1). Numbers of C. xenoplax remained low (<20/100 cm(3) soil), whereas numbers of Paratylenchus sp. increased to high levels (>500/100 cm(3) soil), regardless of treatment. Low levels (<20/100 cm(3) soil) of H. rhossiliensis -parasitized Paratylenchus sp. were detected. No bacterial canker occurred, but tree circumference was greater after 6 years if soil pH was intermediate (6.0-7.0).

Establishment of orchards with black polyethylene film mulching: effect on nematode and fungal pathogens, water conservation, and tree growth.

Placement of a 3-m-wide, black, polyethylene film mulch down rows of peach (Prunus persica 'Red Haven' on 'Lovell' rootstock) and almond (Prunus dulcis 'Nonpareil' on 'Lovell') trees in the San Joaquin Valley of California resulted in irrigation water conservation of 75%, higher soil temperature in the surface 30 cm, a tendency toward greater root mass, elimination of weeds, and a greater abundance of Meloidogyne incognita second-stage juveniles in soil but reduced root galling when compared to the nonmulched control. Population levels of Pratylenchus hexincisus, a nematode found within tree roots, were reduced by mulching, as were those of Tylenchulus semipenetrans, which survived on old grape roots remaining from a previously planted vineyard, and Paratrichodorus minor, which probably fed on roots of various weed species growing in the nonmulched soil. Populations of Pythium ultimum were not significantly changed, probably also due to the biological refuge of the old grape roots and moderate soil heating level. Trunk diameters of peach trees were increased by mulching, but those of almond trees were reduced by the treatment. Leaf petiole analysis indicated that concentrations of mineral nutrients were inconsistent, except for a significant increase in Ca in both tree species.

Overwintering Stages of Meloidogyne incognita in Vitis vinifera.

The overwintering of Meloidogyne incognita in and around Vitis vinifera cv. French Colombard roots was studied in a naturally infested vineyard at the Kearney Agricultural Center, in a growth chamber, in inoculated vines in microplots at the University of California, Davis, and in a greenhouse. Infected roots were sampled at intervals from onset of vine dormancy until plants accumulated about 800 degree days (DD - base 10 C). Embryogenesis within eggs, classified as less than or more than 16 cells and fully differentiated, and numbers of juveniles (second to fourth stage) and preovipositional and mature (egg-laying) adult stages in roots were determined. All stages were present at the onset of dormancy. Juveniles and immature females were not recovered during the dormant period. Mature females and eggs were always present in roots, although the number of mature females generally decreased with time after onset of dormancy. In contrast, in a greenhouse experiment that accumulated comparable DD without the host plant going through dormancy, the number of mature females increased. After bud break, the number of eggs per female increased and all nematode stages were found in host roots. Eggs in all stages of embryogenesis were observed at all times of sampling, indicating that females overwinter and are capable of laying eggs when conditions improve in the spring and need to be considered in nematode management decisions.

Some factors causing variability in 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane concentrations in soil.

Relative to nematicides with greater fuming capabilities, 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP) moved nonuniformly through soil. DBCP concentrations in soil were reduced by low soil temperature and the presence of lime or roots within the soil profile, Applications by either water or chisel injection provided DBCP movement to 120 cm and below. Concentrations were least persistent in the upper 15 cm of the field surface and in one situation where application was not followed by irrigation. Values for Henry's Constant are reported for DBCP at a range of solution temperatures. Certain advantages and disadvantages of soil atmosphere sampling of DBCP are discussed.

Evaluation of the protective and therapeutic properties of DBCP for control of root-knot nematode on tomato.

Twelve soil drenches over a period of 30 days with DBCP concentrations of 40 microg/ml did not completely prevent infection of tomato plants by root-knot nematode juveniles. Repeated DBCP drenches of 40 microg/ml halted gall development during the drenches, but 10 days after drenching was discontinued galls were apparent. DBCP drenches at 200 microg/ml prevented tomato root development, and 40 microg/ml slowed it. Ten microg/ml increased the height of root-knot-infected plants, but not their top weights. Treated plants were lanky. Protective drenches of 2.5 to 40 microg/ml of DBCP decreased nematode populations and increased fruitfulness. DBCP as a therapeutant reduced the incidence of galling on new roots and halted increases in gall size on previously infected roots but did not improve fruitfulness or plant size significantly.

Nematode community structure in a vineyard soil.

Distribution of the nematode community in a California vineyard was studied over a 13-month period. Omnivorous and microbivorous nematodes were similarly distributed in the root zone, with greatest densities occurring between vine rows and near the soil surface. Greatest densities of plant-parasitic nematodes were found in the vine row, with the individual species differing in their vertical distribution. Total nematode biomass was greatest between rows near the surface. Biomass of plant parasites was greatest in the upper 30 cm of soil in the row, whereas biomass of microbivores was greatest in this region between rows. Of the plant-parasitic nematodes, the variability in distribution among vines was greatest for Paratylenchus hamatus and least for Meloidogyne spp.

Relationship of grapevine yield and growth to nematode densities.

Yield, growth, and vigor of individual grape vines were correlated with nematode population densities in a series of California vineyards. In a Hanford sandy loam soil, Xiphinema americanum densities showed negative correlations with yield, growth, and vigor of vines. When vines were categorized according to vigor, X. americanurn densities had little relationship to yield of high-vigor vines, but were negatively correlated with yield of low-vigor vines. Densities of Paratylenchus harnatus were positively correlated with yield, growth, and vigor of vines. Correlations between Meloidogyne spp. densities and vine performance were variable, even when the vines were separated according to soil type and plant vigor. Densities of Meloidogyne spp. populations were generally higher on coarser-textured, sandy soils and the vines were less vigorous there. Densities of P. hamatus were greater in fine-textured soils.

Seasonal fluctuations in the spatial distribution of nematode populations in a california vineyard.

Distribution of Xiphinema americanum and four Meloidogyne spp, was studied in a vineyard over a 13-mo. period. The X. arnericanum population was concd in the upper 60-cm of undisturbed soil in the vine row, whereas the Meloidogyne species were distributed both in and between rows and to greater depths, similar to the distribution of the root system. Samples for assessment of X. americanum densities had least variation when taken in the vine row from the upper 60-cm of soil. Sampling error is reduced in Meloidogyne populations by sampling within 40 cm of the vine both within and/or between rows.