Serine protease modulation of Dependence Receptors and EMT protein expression.

Expression of the tumour suppressor Deleted in Colorectal Cancer (DCC) and the related protein neogenin is reduced by the mammalian serine protease chymotrypsin or the bacterial serine protease subtilisin, with increased cell migration. The present work examines whether these actions are associated with changes in the expression of cadherins, ß-catenin and vimentin, established markers of the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) which has been linked with cell migration and tumour metastasis. The results confirm the depletion of DCC and neogenin and show that chymotrypsin and subtilisin also reduce expression of ß-catenin in acutely prepared tissue sections but not in human mammary adenocarcinoma MCF-7 or MDA-MB-231 cells cultured in normal media, or primary normal human breast cells. A loss of ß-catenin was also seen in low serum media but transfecting cells with a dcc-containing plasmid induced resistance. E-cadherin was not consistently affected but vimentin was induced by low serum-containing media and was increased by serine proteases in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells in parallel with increased wound closure. Vimentin might contribute to the promotion of cell migration. The results suggest that changes in EMT proteins depend on the cells or tissues concerned and do not parallel the expression of DCC and neogenin. The increased cell migration induced by serine proteases is not consistently associated with the expression of the EMT proteins implying either that the increased migration may be independent of EMT or supporting the view that EMT is not itself consistently related to migration. (241).

Selective depletion of tumour suppressors Deleted in Colorectal Cancer (DCC) and neogenin by environmental and endogenous serine proteases: linking diet and cancer.

BACKGROUND: The related tumour suppressor proteins Deleted in Colorectal Cancer (DCC) and neogenin are absent or weakly expressed in many cancers, whereas their insertion into cells suppresses oncogenic behaviour. Serine proteases influence the initiation and progression of cancers although the mechanisms are unknown. METHODS: The effects of environmental (bacterial subtilisin) and endogenous mammalian (chymotrypsin) serine proteases were examined on protein expression in fresh, normal tissue and human neuroblastoma and mammary adenocarcinoma lines. Cell proliferation and migration assays (chemoattraction and wound closure) were used to examine cell function. Cells lacking DCC were transfected with an ectopic dcc plasmid. RESULTS: Subtilisin and chymotrypsin selectively depleted DCC and neogenin from cells at nanomolar concentrations without affecting related proteins. Cells showed reduced adherence and increased migration, but after washing they re-attached within 24 h, with recovery of protein expression. These effects are induced by chymotryptic activity as they are prevented by chymostatin and the soybean Bowman-Birk inhibitor typical of many plant protease inhibitors. CONCLUSIONS: Bacillus subtilis, which secretes subtilisin is widely present in soil, the environment and the intestinal contents, while subtilisin itself is used in meat processing, animal feed probiotics and many household cleaning agents. With chymotrypsin present in chyme, blood and tissues, these proteases may contribute to cancer development by depleting DCC and neogenin. Blocking their activity by Bowman-Birk inhibitors may explain the protective effects of a plant diet. Our findings identify a potential non-genetic contribution to cancer cell behaviour which may explain both the association of processed meats and other factors with cancer incidence and the protection afforded by plant-rich diets, with significant implications for cancer prevention.

Modified neocortical and cerebellar protein expression and morphology in adult rats following prenatal inhibition of the kynurenine pathway.

Inhibition of the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism during gestation can lead to changes in synaptic transmission, neuronal morphology and plasticity in the rat hippocampus. This suggests a role for the kynurenine pathway in early brain development, probably caused by kynurenine modulation of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptors which are activated by the tryptophan metabolite quinolinic acid and blocked by kynurenic acid. We have now examined samples of neocortex and cerebellum of adult animals to assess the effects of a prenatally administered kynurenine-3-monoxygenase inhibitor (Ro61-8048) on protein and mRNA expression, dendritic structure and immuno-histochemistry. No changes were seen in mRNA expression using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Changes were detected in the expression of several proteins including the GluN2A subunit, unco-ordinated-5H3 (unc5H3), doublecortin, cyclo-oxygenase, sonic hedgehog and Disrupted in schizophrenia-1 (DISC1), although no differences in immunoreactive cell numbers were observed. In the midbrain, dependence receptor expression was also changed. The numbers and lengths of individual dendritic regions were not changed but there were significant increases in the overall complexity values of apical and basal dendritic trees. The data support the hypothesis that constitutive kynurenine metabolism plays a critical role in early, embryonic brain development, although fewer effects are produced in the neocortex and cerebellum than in the hippocampus and the nature of the changes seen are qualitatively different. The significant changes in DISC1 and unc5H3 may be relevant to cerebellar dysfunction and schizophrenia respectively, in which these proteins have been previously implicated.

Altered apoptotic responses in neurons lacking RhoB GTPase.

Caspase 3 activation has been linked to the acute neurotoxic effects of central nervous system damage, as in traumatic brain injury or cerebral ischaemia, and also to the early events leading to long-term neurodegeneration, as in Alzheimer's disease. However, the precise mechanisms activating caspase 3 in neuronal injury are unclear. RhoB is a member of the Rho GTPase family that is dramatically induced by cerebral ischaemia or neurotrauma, both in preclinical models and clinically. In the current study, we tested the hypothesis that RhoB might directly modulate caspase 3 activity and apoptotic or necrotic responses in neurons. Over-expression of RhoB in the NG108-15 neuronal cell line or in cultured corticohippocampal neurons elevated caspase 3 activity without inducing overt toxicity. Cultured corticohippocampal neurons from RhoB knockout mice did not show any differences in sensitivity to a necrotic stimulus - acute calcium ionophore exposure - compared with neurons from wild-type mice. However, corticohippocampal neurons lacking RhoB exhibited a reduction in the degree of DNA fragmentation and caspase 3 activation induced by the apoptotic agent staurosporine, in parallel with increased neuronal survival. Staurosporine induction of caspase 9 activity was also suppressed. RhoB knockout mice showed reduced basal levels of caspase 3 activity in the adult brain. These data directly implicate neuronal RhoB in caspase 3 activation and the initial stages of programmed cell death, and suggest that RhoB may represent an attractive target for therapeutic intervention in conditions involving elevated caspase 3 activity in the central nervous system.

A role for RhoB in synaptic plasticity and the regulation of neuronal morphology.

Actin-rich dendritic spines are the locus of excitatory synaptic transmission and plastic events such as long-term potentiation (LTP). Morphological plasticity of spines accompanies activity-dependent changes in synaptic strength. Several Rho GTPase family members are implicated in regulating neuronal and, in particular, spine structure via actin and the actin-binding protein cofilin. However, despite expression in hippocampus and cortex, its ability to modulate actin-regulatory proteins, and its induction during aging, RhoB has been relatively neglected. We previously demonstrated that LTP is associated with specific RhoB activation. Here, we further examined its role in synaptic function using mice with genetic deletion of the RhoB GTPase (RhoB(-/-) mice). Normal basal synaptic transmission accompanied reduced paired-pulse facilitation and post-tetanic potentiation in the hippocampus of RhoB(-/-) mice. Early phase LTP was significantly reduced in RhoB(-/-) animals, whereas the later phase was unaffected. In wild-type mice (RhoB(+/+)), Western blot analysis of potentiated hippocampus showed significant increases in phosphorylated cofilin relative to nonpotentiated slices, which were dramatically impaired in RhoB(-/-) slices. There was also a deficit in phosphorylated Lim kinase levels in the hippocampus from RhoB(-/-) mice. Morphological analysis suggested that lack of RhoB resulted in increased dendritic branching and decreased spine number. Furthermore, an increase in the proportion of stubby relative to thin spines was observed. Moreover, spines demonstrated increased length along with increased head and neck widths. These data implicate RhoB in cofilin regulation and dendritic and spine morphology, highlighting its importance in synaptic plasticity at a structural and functional level.

Enhanced hippocampal long-term potentiation and spatial learning in aged 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 knock-out mice.

Glucocorticoids are pivotal in the maintenance of memory and cognitive functions as well as other essential physiological processes including energy metabolism, stress responses, and cell proliferation. Normal aging in both rodents and humans is often characterized by elevated glucocorticoid levels that correlate with hippocampus-dependent memory impairments. 11Beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11beta-HSD1) amplifies local intracellular ("intracrine") glucocorticoid action; in the brain it is highly expressed in the hippocampus. We investigated whether the impact of 11beta-HSD1 deficiency in knock-out mice (congenic on C57BL/6J strain) on cognitive function with aging reflects direct CNS or indirect effects of altered peripheral insulin-glucose metabolism. Spatial learning and memory was enhanced in 12 month "middle-aged" and 24 month "aged" 11beta-HSD1(-/-) mice compared with age-matched congenic controls. These effects were not caused by alterations in other cognitive (working memory in a spontaneous alternation task) or affective domains (anxiety-related behaviors), to changes in plasma corticosterone or glucose levels, or to altered age-related pathologies in 11beta-HSD1(-/-) mice. Young 11beta-HSD1(-/-) mice showed significantly increased newborn cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus, but this was not maintained into aging. Long-term potentiation was significantly enhanced in subfield CA1 of hippocampal slices from aged 11beta-HSD1(-/-) mice. These data suggest that 11beta-HSD1 deficiency enhances synaptic potentiation in the aged hippocampus and this may underlie the better maintenance of learning and memory with aging, which occurs in the absence of increased neurogenesis.

Naphthalen-1-yl-(4-pentyloxynaphthalen-1-yl)methanone: a potent, orally bioavailable human CB1/CB2 dual agonist with antihyperalgesic properties and restricted central nervous system penetration.

Selective activation of peripheral cannabinoid CB1 receptors has the potential to become a valuable therapy for chronic pain conditions as long as central nervous system effects are attenuated. A new class of cannabinoid ligands was rationally designed from known aminoalkylindole agonists and showed good binding and functional activities at human CB1 and CB2 receptors. This has led to the discovery of a novel CB1/CB2 dual agonist, naphthalen-1-yl-(4-pentyloxynaphthalen-1-yl)methanone (13), which displays good oral bioavailability, potent antihyperalgesic activity in animal models, and limited brain penetration.

Restored plasticity in a mouse model of neurofibromatosis type 1 via inhibition of hyperactive ERK and CREB.

Patients with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1), resulting from neurofibromin gene mutations, frequently suffer from deficits in learning and spatial memory. Mice heterozygous for functional deletion of the NF1 gene (NF1(+/-) mice) also exhibit compromised spatial learning, and deficits in early-stage hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP). Neurofibromin is a multifunctional protein which acts in part as an inhibitory constraint on Ras signalling, and the deficits in early-stage LTP and spatial learning have been linked to Ras hyperactivation. However, the downstream targets of Ras hyperactivation that lead to cognitive disruption are unknown. The levels of activity of signalling molecules potentially downstream of Ras were therefore studied in NF1(+/-) mice. Elevated phospho-ERK (pERK) levels were observed in the hippocampi from NF1(+/-) mice, while phospho-Akt/PKB (pAkt) and phospho-eIF4E (peIF4E) levels were unchanged relative to wild-type mice. Hippocampal levels of phospho-CREB (pCREB) were also increased, suggesting potential changes in late-phase LTP in NF1(+/-) mice. Indeed, LTP was found to be impaired for at least 4 h following induction in NF1(+/-) mice, linking neurofibromin function with the long-term maintenance of LTP. Remarkably, U0126, an inhibitor of ERK activation, at doses which reduced the hyperactive pERK levels in NF1(+/-) mice to the levels observed in control mice, caused a reduction in the deficits in early-phase LTP and completely rescued the long-term LTP deficits. In contrast to the abundant evidence that reductions in ERK activity lead to impaired plasticity, these data indicate that ERK hyperactivation in a partial model of type 1 neurofibromatosis leads to deficits in long-lasting hippocampal plasticity.

Plasticity-related regulation of the hippocampal proteome.

Plasticity of glutamatergic synapses is considered to be a pivotal mechanism underlying the ability of the CNS to re-configure its neural circuits. A large number of studies have focused on investigating how individual proteins, biochemical pathways and structural processes alter both the induction and maintenance of synaptic plasticity. However, it is likely that synaptic plasticity involves temporally and spatially coordinated regulation of multiple protein complexes within the activated neural circuit. By using a global proteomics-based approach we have now been able to reveal that highly diverse protein classes exhibit altered expression in response to both the activation of glutamate receptors and the induction of long-term potentiation (LTP) of glutamatergic synaptic strength in the hippocampus; a brain area where plastic synaptic modification is believed to be key to cognitive processes, such as spatial learning. Of the 2946 resolvable protein spots detected in this study, 79 (2.7%) were significantly altered in abundance in response to 100 microM glutamate application (all P < 0.05). The majority (56 out of 79) of these changes were due to the activation of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptor. Likewise, the induction of LTP was associated with an altered abundance of 2.4% of the detectable proteome during the early (10 min) phase and 1.7% during the late (4 h) phase of its development. Observed changes in temporal and protein class-specific patterns of expression depict a widespread shift from metabolic to structural protein alteration as the plasticity process matures.

Disease modifying and anti-nociceptive effects of the bisphosphonate, zoledronic acid in a model of bone cancer pain.

Inoculation of syngeneic MRMT-1 mammary tumour cells into one tibia of female rats produced tumour growth within the bone associated with a reduction in bone mineral density (BMD) and bone mineral content (BMC), severe radiological signs of bone destruction, together with the development of behavioural mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia. Histological and radiological examination showed that chronic treatment with the bisphosphonate, zoledronic acid (30 microg/kg, s.c.), for 19 days significantly inhibited tumour proliferation and preserved the cortical and trabecular bone structure. In addition, BMD and BMC were preserved and a dramatic reduction of tartrate resistant acid phosphatase-positive polykaryocytes (osteoclasts) was observed. In behavioural tests, chronic treatment with zoledronic acid but not the significantly less effective bisphosphonate, pamidronate, or the selective COX-2 inhibitor, celebrex, attenuated mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia in the affected hind paw. Zoledronic acid also attenuated mechanical hyperalgesia associated with chronic peripheral neuropathy and inflammation in the rat. In contrast, pamidronate or clodronate did not have any anti-hyperalgesic effect on mechanical hyperalgesia in the neuropathic and inflammatory pain models. We conclude that zoledronic acid, in addition to, or independent from, its anti-metastatic and bone preserving therapeutic effects, is an anti-nociceptive agent in a rat model of metastatic cancer pain. This unique property of zoledronic acid amongst the bisphosphonate class of compounds could make this drug a preferred choice for the treatment of painful bone metastases in the clinic.

Metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 upregulation in A-fibers after spinal nerve injury: 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP) reverses the induced thermal hyperalgesia.

Metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) protein increased after sciatic nerve section in ipsilateral L4 and L5 DRG neuronal profiles, with most of the increase occurring in myelinated A-fiber somata. mGluR5 also increased in lamina II of the ipsilateral spinal cord and the proximal sciatic nerve stump in this model. After L5 spinal nerve ligation, mGluR5 immunoreactivity increased dramatically not only in damaged L5 but also in the neighboring undamaged L4. Interestingly, after partial sciatic nerve section, mGluR5 expression did not change in either L4 or L5 DRG neuronal profiles. Both spinal nerve ligation and sciatic nerve partial section produced significant mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia and tactile allodynia. After partial sciatic nerve section, the mGluR5-specific antagonist 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP) had no effect on any of these behaviors. However, after L5 spinal nerve ligation, although MPEP failed to alter the induced tactile allodynia or mechanical hyperalgesia, it dose dependently reversed the developed thermal hyperalgesia. Therefore, reversal of thermal hyperalgesia by MPEP correlates with increased mGluR5 in lumbar DRG A-fiber somata after nerve injury. Furthermore, A-fibers in the uninjured L4 DRG after L5 spinal nerve ligation that have increased mGluR5 are the same A-fibers that newly express vanilloid receptor 1 after such injury. Together, these results suggest that, after L5 spinal nerve injury, mGluR5 expression on A-fibers is essential to the development of thermal hyperalgesia. After partial nerve section, however, it is unlikely that thermal responses are mediated through mGluR5 because no such increase in mGluR5 is detected in this model and MPEP is ineffective.