An analysis of the maxillary beak shape variation between 2 pure layer lines and its relationship to the underlying premaxillary bone, feather cover, and mortality.

Beak shape varies considerably within and between intact-beak laying hens, and aspects of beak shape appear to be heritable. As an alternative to beak treatment (an effective method of reducing damage from severe feather pecking (SFP)), this variation could be used to genetically select hens whose beak shapes are less apt to cause damage. To be able to select certain phenotypes, the beak shape variation that exists within laying hen flocks must first be characterized. The objectives of this study were to 1) describe the maxillary beak shape variation in 2 pure White Leghorn layer lines with intact beaks using geometric morphometrics to analyze images, and 2) examine the beak shape's relationship to the premaxillary bone, feather cover, and mortality. A lateral head image was taken of each hen (n = 710), and 20 landmarks were placed along each image's dorsal and ventral margins of the maxillary beak. Landmark coordinates were standardized by Procrustes superimposition, and the covariation was analyzed by principal components analysis and multivariate regression. Feather cover was scored at 3 ages and mortality was monitored throughout the production cycle. Three principal components (PCs) explained 83% of the maxillary beak shape variation and the first PC partially separated the 2 lines. Maxillary beak shapes ranged from long and narrow with pointed tips to short and wide with more curved tips. Moderate correlations were found between the maxillary beak and premaxillary bone shape (rs = 0.44) and size (rs = 0.52). Line A hens had better feather cover than Line B at all ages. Line A hens also had less total and cannibalism-related mortality than Line B (10.7 and 0.4% vs. 16.7 and 2.4%, respectively). Beak shape may be one factor contributing to the observed differences in feather cover and mortality. The results suggest that distinct maxillary beak phenotypes within each line could be selected to help reduce SFP damage and improve bird welfare.

Development of an in vivo radiographic method with potential for use in improving bone quality and the welfare of laying hens through genetic selection.

1. Genetic selection for bone quality can improve this, as it is heritable. A method was established using digital X-ray which took around 40 s in total and gave an image that allowed quantification of bone density from many appendicular bones.2. The tibiotarsus measurement of bone density on the live hen across the different experiments had correlations with post-mortem whole bone radiographic density from 0.62 to 0.7, similar to that between density and material properties for example. Differences between groups of hens, where calcium and phosphorus in the diet were manipulated, were detected within 3 weeks of treatment using live hen measurement (P < 0.001, n = 24).3. In a gage analysis, 'hen' explained more than 86% of the variance, demonstrating the ability to observe clear differences between hens. The effect of different operators' analysis on the contribution to variance was very low as was the repeated measurement of the same hen.4. The measurement of bone density on the live hen described in this paper represented major progress to a usable method for genetic selection to improve bone strength in laying hens. The method has the potential to reduce the number of animals needed to test nutritional and management interventions to improve bone health.

Integument, mortality, and skeletal strength in extended production cycles for laying hens - effects of genotype and dietary zinc source.

1. This study on long-life layers, covering the period 20-100 weeks of age, investigated longitudinal effects on mortality, layer integument, and skeletal properties in Bovans White (BoW) and Lohmann Selected Leghorn Classic (LSL), with or without supplementation with dietary organic zinc (Zn).2. Two experiments, using 1440 layers in furnished small group cages (FC) and 1836 layers in a traditional floor housing system (Floor), were run in parallel. Each replicate consisted of five adjacent cages containing eight hens in each FC, or a pen with 102 layers in the Floor group.3. Mortality was recorded daily. Integument and keel bone condition were scored at 35, 55, 85, and 100 weeks of age on 20% of the layers. Tibial strength was recorded from 933 layers at 100 weeks. Statistical analyses were performed on replicate means, with four to five and nine replicates per combination of hybrid and diet in Floor and FC groups, respectively.4. Cumulative mortality was 9.6% and 16.3% in FC and Floor, respectively, and increased in the latter part of the production cycle, particularly in the Floor group.5. In FC, LSL had inferior feather cover, less keel bone deviation, and shorter claws than BoW. In Floor, LSL had superior feather cover, less severe vent wounds, more bumble foot, and cleaner plumage than BoW. In both production systems, claws grew longer and keel bone deviation became more severe with age.6. In FC, layers fed organic Zn had lower body weight and less keel bone deviation at 100 weeks of age.7. In conclusion, keel bone integrity, claw length, and mortality rate are potential threats to welfare in long-life layers. Feather pecking is a problem that needs addressing at an early stage in the production period. On the whole, organic Zn did not improve welfare conditions in long-life layers.

Determining the variation in premaxillary and dentary bone morphology that may underlie beak shape between two pure layer lines.

Beak treatment is an effective method of reducing the damage inflicted by severe feather pecking (SFP) but there is significant pressure to eliminate these treatments and rely solely on alternative strategies. Substantial variation in beak shape exists within non-beak treated layer flocks and beak shape appears to be heritable. There is the potential to use this pre-existing variation and genetically select for hens whose beak shapes are less apt to cause damage during SFP. To do this, we must first understand the range of phenotypes that exist for both the external beak shape and the bones that provide its structure. The objective of this study was to determine the variation in premaxillary (within the top beak) and dentary (within the bottom beak) bone morphology that exists in 2 non-beak treated pure White Leghorn layer lines using geometric morphometrics to analyze radiographs. Lateral head radiographs were taken of 825 hens and the premaxillary and dentary bones were landmarked. Landmark coordinates were standardized by Procrustes superimposition and the covariation was analyzed by principal components analysis and multivariate regression using Geomorph (an R package). Three principal components (PCs) explained 85% of total premaxillary bone shape variation and showed that the shape ranged from long and narrow with pointed bone tips to short and wide with more curved tips. Two PCs explained 81% of total dentary bone shape variation. PC1 described the dentary bone length and width and PC2 explained the angle between the bone tip and its articular process. For both bones, shape was significantly associated with bone size and differed significantly between the two lines. Bone size accounted for 42% of the total shape variation for both bones. Together, the results showed a range of phenotypic variation in premaxillary and dentary bone shape, which in turn may influence beak shape. These bone phenotypes will guide further quantitative genetic and behavioral analyses that will help identify which beaks shapes cause the least damage when birds engage in SFP.

Comparative analysis of the morphology, chemistry and structure of the tibiotarsus, humerus and keel bones in laying hens.

1. Bone properties are adapted to their specific functions in the animal, so various types of bones develop different characteristics depending on their location in the skeleton.2. The aim of this research was to compare the chemical composition, mineral characteristics and structural organisation in tibiotarsus, humerus and keel bones as representatives of hen skeletal mineralisation. Complementary analytical techniques, such as X-ray radiography, optical and electron microscopy, thermogravimetry and 2D X-ray diffraction, were used for characterisation.3. The humerus had a thinner cortex and cortical bone mineral had higher crystallinity and a greater degree of crystal orientation than the tibiotarsus. The humerus generally lacks medullary bone although, when present, it has a higher mineral content than seen in the tibiotarsus. These differences were attributed to the different forces that stimulate bone formation and remodelling.4. The keel cortical bone had a lower degree of mineralisation than the tibiotarsus or humerus. Its degree of mineralisation decreased from the cranial to the distal end of the bone. This gradient may affect keel mechanical properties, making it more prone to deformation and fractures.5. Data from studying different bones in laying hens can help to understand mineralisation as well as finding solutions to prevent osteoporosis-related fractures.

Dietary betaine reduces plasma homocysteine concentrations and improves bone strength in laying hens.

1. This study tested the hypothesis that the methyl-donor properties of betaine could reduce homocysteine concentrations, which has been recognised in a previous genetics study to be linked to bone quality. This was combined with phytase treatment, as phosphorus is critical for bone mineralisation.2. Using a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement, a total of 1920 Lohmann LSL-lite chickens housed as 24 replicates of 20 chickens were fed one of four diets containing dietary betaine (0 or 1000 mg/kg) and phytase (300 or 1000 FTU/kg) from one day old until end-of-lay. Blood and bone samples were collected at 45 and 70 weeks of age.3. Hens fed betaine had lower plasma homocysteine level (P < 0.05), higher tibia breaking strength (P < 0.05) and higher tibia bone density (P < 0.05).4. Egg production and quality was excellent throughout the study and were not affected by the dietary treatments.5. The addition of dietary betaine was successful at reducing plasma homocysteine concentrations and improving bone strength in laying hens, which could be used as an intervention to alleviate welfare concerns.

A QTL for osteoporosis detected in an F2 population derived from White Leghorn chicken lines divergently selected for bone index.

Osteoporosis, resulting from progressive loss of structural bone during the period of egg-laying in hens, is associated with an increased susceptibility to bone breakage. To study the genetic basis of bone strength, an F(2) cross was produced from lines of hens that had been divergently selected for bone index from a commercial pedigreed White Leghorn population. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) affecting the bone index and component traits of the index (tibiotarsal and humeral strength and keel radiographic density) were mapped using phenotypic data from 372 F(2) individuals in 32 F(1) families. Genotypes for 136 microsatellite markers in 27 linkage groups covering approximately 80% of the genome were analysed for association with phenotypes using within-family regression analyses. There was one significant QTL on chromosome 1 for bone index and the component traits of tibiotarsal and humeral breaking strength. Additive effects for tibiotarsal breaking strength represented 34% of the trait standard deviation and 7.6% of the phenotypic variance of the trait. These QTL for bone quality in poultry are directly relevant to commercial populations.

Relationships between genetic, environmental and nutritional factors influencing osteoporosis in laying hens.

1. The effects upon bone quality of feeding limestone in flour or particulate form and housing type (cage or aviary) in lines of hens divergently selected for high (H) or low (L) bone strength over 7 generations were investigated. 2. As in previous generations, highly significant phenotypic differences between lines were observed in all measured bone traits at peak egg production (25 weeks) and towards the end of production (56 weeks) in both cage and aviary systems. 3. At 25 weeks there were no significant effects on bone variables of feeding particulate limestone although a significant reduction in osteoclast number was observed at this age. By 56 weeks osteoclast numbers were further reduced in hens fed particulate limestone and beneficial effects on some bone variables were observed in this treatment group. 4. The genotypic and dietary improvements upon bone quality were independent and additive at both ages. There were very few interactive effects. 5. Hens with the freedom to move in an aviary environment during the laying period had improved bone status compared to caged siblings. Environmental and genotypic effects were additive. 6. There were no effects of line on egg production although H line hens had slightly higher egg production by 56 weeks. Egg numbers were unaffected by diet. Eggshell thickness and strength were unaffected by line but hens fed particulate limestone had thicker- and stronger-shelled eggs over the production period as a whole. 7. We conclude that; (a) genetic selection is extremely effective in improving bone strength and resistance to osteoporosis; (b) allowing hens freedom to exercise can also improve bone strength but may increase the risk of keel damage if they do not have genetically-improved bone status; (c) feeding hens a particulate form of limestone from 15 weeks onwards can also increase bone strength and eggshell quality; (d) genetics, environment and nutrition all have independent and additive effects on bone status in laying hens but the relative effectiveness of these factors is genetics > environment > nutrition.

Incidence, pathology and prevention of keel bone deformities in the laying hen.

1. As a baseline study of the nature and incidence of keel deformities in laying hens, keel condition was examined in three different strains of hen from a total of 4 different caged environments (two commercial farms and two experimental farms). Incidence of keel deformity on farms in end of lay hens ranged from 2.6 to 16.7%. Only 0.8% of younger 15-week-old pullets had deformed keels. 2. Incidence of keel deformities was unchanged in 100 birds sampled from a free-range system compared to conventional caged siblings at the same farm. 3. Keel condition was also examined in 5 selected generations of a study involving the use of a body-weight-restricted selection index for skeletal improvement. Divergent selection for skeletal characteristics decreased incidence of keel deformity and improved radiographic density (RD) in high bone index (BI) hens compared to low BI hens in all selected generations. Male high BI keels were also improved compared to low BI. Shear strength measured in normal keels in generation 6 (G6) of the genetic study was improved in high BI hens compared to low BI hens. For all hens in the genetic study, those with normal keels had stronger tibiotarsus and humerus breaking strengths than hens with deformed keels. 4. Histopathology of keels representative of different deformities showed the presence of fracture callus material and new bone in all cases. This establishes that deformities are a result of trauma and are not developmental in origin. 5. Ash contents of keels, tibiae and humeri showed no differences between hens with normal and deformed keels. There were no differences in indicators of collagen cross-linkage in other bones between hens with normal keels and those with deformed keels. 6. It is concluded that lack of bone mass is the underlying cause of keel fracture and deformity in laying hens, rather than qualitative changes in bone, and that genetic selection can improve keel quality and prevent deformity.

High vitamin D3 requirements in broilers for bone quality and prevention of tibial dyschondroplasia and interactions with dietary calcium, available phosphorus and vitamin A.

1. Two experiments were carried out to investigate responses in performance and bone compositional and structural characteristics in broilers fed diets containing 4 concentrations of vitamin D3 (5, 20, 125 and 250 microg cholecalciferol/kg) at different concentrations of calcium, available phosphorus and vitamin A. 2. In experiment 1, body weight and tibia breaking strength were maximised at 14d with 250 microg vitamin D3/kg, tibia ash was maximised with 125 microg vitamin D3/kg. A high incidence of tibial dyschondroplasia (TD) was decreased to very low levels with 125 microg vitamin D/kg. 3. At 42d, performance and bone characteristics showed no response to vitamin D3 concentrations above 20 microg/kg. 4. Dietary vitamin A within the range 2-4 to 4.5 mg retinol/kg did not show any interaction with vitamin D3 status at either age. 5. In experiment 2, responses to vitamin D3 were strongly influenced by dietary calcium/available phosphorus. With 13 g calcium and 5 g available phosphorus/kg, performance and bone characteristics responded to vitamin D3 concentrations up to 125 microg/kg but more was needed at less optimal concentrations of calcium and available phosphorus. TD incidence was minimised with 250 microg/kg. 6. This study shows that high dietary concentrations of vitamin D3 can prevent TD. It is concluded that the vitamin D3 requirement of broilers up to 14 d of age at optimal dietary calcium and available phosphorus concentrations may be in the range 35 to 50 microg/kg for cortical bone quality and up to 250 microg/kg for prevention of TD. The vitamin D3 requirement for cortical bone quality after 14 d is not higher than 20 microg/kg. These requirements are much higher than earlier estimates and may be related to higher calcium requirements of modern broiler genotypes. Current regulations limiting maximum vitamin D3 concentrations in broiler starter diets may need to be reviewed.

Assessing bone mineral density in vivo: digitized fluoroscopy and ultrasound.

The genetic component of osteoporosis in caged laying hens is large, and a method for detecting hens susceptible to fracture could be useful in breeding programs. A radiographic absorptiometry film method was modified by video digitization from an image intensifier and computer analysis and termed digitized fluoroscopy (DF). Humeral and ulnar DF values were measured in 165 hens during lay. Relationships (P < 0.001) were seen between DF assessments from 25 wk onward and postmortem measurements at 70 wk. We conclude that DF can detect poor bones in hens early but is problematic. Quantitative ultrasound was also investigated. We measured amplitude-dependent speed-of-sound (Ad-SoS) in the third toe in hens. Nutritional studies revealed Ad-SoS values correlated with postmortem peripheral quantitative computerized tomography, (control group, r = 0.48, P < 0.001; treatment group, r = 0.39, P < 0.001). In caged and free-range hens, Ad-SoS correlated with shear strength (r = 0.33, P < 0.001, all hens) and radiographic density values (r = 0.53, P < 0.001, all hens) measured postmortem. The Ad-SoS values were higher in free-range than in caged hens (1,904 vs. 1,850 m/s, P < 0.001). Ad-SoS measurements were made in hens from a study where divergent genetic selection has produced high and low bone index lines with 92% difference in tibia strength. The value in high bone index hens was higher than in low bone index hens at 32 (P < 0.001), 42 (P < 0.001), 52 (P < 0.05), and 62 wk (P < 0.001) in generation 8. In an Ad-SoS heritability study, heritability estimates ranged from 0.15 to 0.39. We conclude that Ad-SoS is a heritable trait, reflects other bone measurements, and rapidly detects poor bone quality in hens.

Effects of dietary particulate limestone, vitamin K3 and fluoride and photostimulation on skeletal morphology and osteoporosis in laying hens.

1. Female chicks of a White Leghorn strain were fed three different diets from one day old: control, additional vitamin K3 (10 mg/kg), and a diet containing a combination of additional vitamin K3, sodium fluoride (10 mg/kg) and limestone in particulate rather than powdered form. At 16 weeks photoperiod was increased for half the birds from 8:16 L:D to 16:8 L:D immediately or by one hour per week to the same ultimate photoperiod for the other half. 2. Age at first egg was lower by 4.0 d for birds on the fast lighting regime but there were no overall effects of lighting on bone quality at either 25 or 70 weeks. 3. Additional vitamin K3 resulted in higher proximal tarsometatarsus cancellous bone volumes at 15 weeks and throughout the laying period compared with controls. Plasma osteocalcin concentrations were unaffected by vitamin K3 supplementation during growth. 4. The combination diet resulted in beneficial responses of 12 to 20% in most bone characteristics in hens at 70 weeks. The magnitude of these effects was similar to a previous study involving a particulate calcium source alone (Fleming et al., Poultry Science, 39: 434-440, 1998b). We conclude that the beneficial effects of the combined treatment over the lifetime of the hens were attributable mainly to the presence in the diet of a calcium source in particulate form.

Prediction of breaking strength in osteoporotic avian bone using digitized fluoroscopy, a low cost radiographic technique.

Bone fragility in caged laying hens is a severe welfare problem, with fracture incidences in commercial flocks of up to 30% of all hens during their life. This fragility has been attributed to osteoporosis, the etiology of which is multifactorial in birds, as in humans, with genetic, environmental, and nutritional components. Greater understanding of the development of the disorder in hens could be obtained from the same kind of in vivo assessments available in human studies of osteoporosis. These high technology techniques for evaluation of bone mineral density (BMD), such as single or dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (SXA or DXA), quantitative computerized tomography (QCT), or attenuation by ultrasound (US), are so far not widely available to nonclinical researchers. We have modified an older X-ray film technique, radiographic absorptiometry (RA) by digitization of the analog video signal from a Philips BV-25 image intensifier, in single pulse fluoroscopy mode, and subsequent computer analysis with the public domain software package, NIH-Image 1.60. Compared with conventional RA, which uses standard X-ray film, our modified technique reduces X-ray exposure and allows the operator to digitize, store, and analyze many more images in a shorter time. We have called this modified technique "digitized fluoroscopy" (DF). In a longitudinal study of humeral radiographic density in a flock of 165 laying hens, significant relationships (P < 0.001) were observed between assessments made as early as 25 weeks, utilizing this DF technique in the humerus, and breaking strengths (and other postmortem indicators of osteoporosis) measured at 70 weeks. We conclude that DF can predict some eventual parameters of bone mass measured at 70 weeks from 25 to 40 weeks onward in bones from the same site in laying hens. The relationship between DF measurements made in the humerus and postmortem measurements of radiographic density and breaking strength made at another site (tibia) are less strong but still significant from 40 weeks onward.

Inheritance of bone characteristics affecting osteoporosis in laying hens.

1. Heritabilities of a range of morphometric, radiological and strength characteristics were measured in the bones of end-of-lay hens. 2. Tibial strength (TSTR), humeral strength (HSTR) and keel radiographic density (KRD) were moderately to strongly inherited and were combined in a Bone Index which was used as a basis for selection. Data are available on 6 generations/cohorts of hens (n=1306), the last 3 of which are the progeny of divergently selected birds. 3. All bone characteristics used in the Bone Index responded rapidly to divergent selection and were strongly correlated with each other. In the last generation, the lines differed by 25% for TSTR, 13% for HSTR and 19% for KRD. The heritability of the index was 0.40. 4. There were no apparent genotype by environment interactions between birds housed at 2 different locations. 5. The incidence of bone fractures was significantly decreased in the line selected for high bone strength compared to the line selected for low bone strength. Humerus fracture incidence differed by a factor of 6 between the lines in the last generation. There was a strong quadratic relationship between tibia strength and overall fracture incidence (r2=0.92, P<0.01). 6. The results imply that selection for enhanced bone strength can be used as a long-term strategy for alleviating the problems of osteoporosis in laying hens.

Bone structure and strength at different ages in laying hens and effects of dietary particulate limestone, vitamin K and ascorbic acid.

1. A range of bone structural and strength characteristics was determined in laying hens at 15, 25, 50 and 70 weeks of age. The birds were fed up to 25 weeks on diets supplemented with additional vitamin K (10 mg menadione/kg) or ascorbic acid (250 mg/kg) or up to 70 weeks on diets containing limestone in powder or particulate form. 2. There were important effects of age on all bone characteristics. Between 15 and 25 weeks there was a rapid loss of cancellous bone and a rapid accumulation of medullary bone in the proximal tarsometatarsus (PTM). These changes continued at a slower rate up to 70 weeks. Cancellous bone content of the free thoracic vertebra (FTV) also declined after 15 weeks. 3. Breaking strengths of tibia and humerus did not change between 15 and 25 weeks but decreased later in lay. 4. None of the nutritional treatments affected bone characteristics at 15 weeks of age. 5. Increasing the dietary vitamin K supplement from 2 to 12 mg menadione/kg increased cancellous bone volume in the PTM at 25 weeks. 6. Dietary ascorbic acid did not affect any of the bone characteristics measured up to 25 weeks. 7. Particulate limestone resulted in a smaller loss of cancellous bone between 15 and 25 weeks and increased accumulation of medullary bone in the PTM. Breaking strength of the tibia and radiographic densities of tibia and keel were also improved. 8. It is concluded that patterns of bone loss over the lifetime of laying hens vary, depending upon the bone type. Feeding a particulate source of calcium can help to alleviate some of the characteristics of osteoporosis. Supplementation with extra vitamin K may also be beneficial.

Medullary bone and humeral breaking strength in laying hens.

To test the hypothesis that large amounts of medullary bone in the humeral diaphysis may increase breaking strength, various parameters of bone quality and quantity were examined in two large flocks of hens near end of lay. We conclude that the amount of medullary bone in the humerus of hens during the laying period influences bone strength. This medullary bone may not have any intrinsic strength, but may act by contributing to the fracture resistance of the surrounding cortical bone. Using a quantitative, low dose, radiographic technique, we can predict, from early in the laying period, those birds which will develop large amounts of medullary bone in their humeri by the end of the laying period. The formation of medullary bone in the humeral diaphysis is not at the expense of the surrounding radiographed cortical bone.