A new diagnosis of asthma or COPD is linked to smoking cessation - the Tromsø study.

BACKGROUND: Patients with COPD have had a lower tendency to quit smoking compared to patients with coronary heart disease (CHD). We wanted to investigate if this is still true in a Norwegian population. METHODS: Our data came from the fifth and sixth Tromsø surveys, which took place in 2001-2002 and 2007-2008. The predictors of smoking cessation were evaluated in a cohort of 4,497 participants who had stated their smoking status in both surveys. RESULTS: Of the 4,497 subjects in the cohort, 1,150 (25.6%) reported daily smoking in Tromsø 5. In Tromsø 6, 428 had quit (37.2%). A new diagnosis of obstructive lung disease (asthma or COPD) and CHD were both associated with increased quitting rates, 50.6% (P=0.01) and 52.1% (P=0.02), respectively. In multivariable logistic regression analysis with smoking cessation as outcome, the odds ratios (ORs) of a new diagnosis of obstructive lung disease and of CHD were 1.7 (1.1-2.7) and 1.7 (1.0-2.9), respectively. Male sex had an OR of 1.4 (1.1-1.8) compared to women in the multivariable model, whereas the ORs of an educational length of 13-16 years and ≥17 years compared to shorter education were 1.6 (1.1-2.2) and 2.5 (1.5-4.1), respectively. CONCLUSION: The general trend of smoking cessation in the population was confirmed. Increased rates of smoking cessation were associated with a new diagnosis of heart or lung disease, and obstructive lung disease was just as strongly linked to smoking cessation as was CHD. This should encourage the pursuit of early diagnosis of COPD.

"I did not intend to stop. I just could not stand cigarettes any more." A qualitative interview study of smoking cessation among the elderly.

BACKGROUND: Every year, more than 650,000 Europeans die because they smoke. Smoking is considered to be the single most preventable factor influencing health. General practitioners (GP) are encouraged to advise on smoking cessation at all suitable consultations. Unsolicited advice from GPs results in one of 40-60 smokers stopping smoking. Smoking cessation advice has traditionally been given on an individual basis. Our aim was to gain insights that may help general practitioners understand why people smoke, and why smokers stop and then remain quitting and, from this, to find fruitful approaches to the dialogue about stopping smoking. METHODS: Interviews with 18 elderly smokers and ex-smokers about their smoking and decisions to smoke or quit were analysed with qualitative content analysis across narratives. A narrative perspective was applied. RESULTS: Six stages in the smoking story emerged, from the start of smoking, where friends had a huge influence, until maintenance of the possible cessation. The informants were influenced by "all the others" at all stages. Spouses had vital influence in stopping, relapses and continued smoking. The majority of quitters had stopped by themselves without medication, and had kept the tobacco handy for 3-6 months. Often smoking cessation seemed to happen unplanned, though sometimes it was planned. With an increasingly negative social attitude towards smoking, the informants became more aware of the risks of smoking. CONCLUSION: "All the others" is a clue in the smoking story. For smoking cessation, it is essential to be aware of the influence of friends and family members, especially a spouse. People may stop smoking unplanned, even when motivation is not obvious. Information from the community and from doctors on the negative aspects of smoking should continue. Eliciting life-long smoking narratives may open up for a fruitful dialogue, as well as prompting reflection about smoking and adding to the motivation to stop.

What role may symptoms play in the diagnosis of airflow limitation? A study in an elderly population.

BACKGROUND: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is an under-diagnosed condition. General practitioners meet and examine the patients in early stages of the disease, and symptoms represent the starting point of the diagnostic process. AIM: To evaluate the diagnostic value of respiratory symptoms in the diagnosis of airflow limitation. METHODS: Spirometry was performed in a cross-sectional population-based study of 3954 subjects 60 years and older (54.5% women), who also filled in a questionnaire on symptoms. RESULTS: The prevalence of any airflow limitation was 15.5% and 20.8%, in women and men, respectively, whereas the corresponding prevalence of severe airflow limitation (FEV(1)<50% predicted) was 3.4% and 4.9%. The positive predictive value of chronic cough with phlegm for any airflow limitation was 37.0% in women and 40.4% in men, and 17.3% and 14.2%, respectively, for severe airflow limitation. Wheezing was a symptom which persisted despite smoking cessation, whereas coughing was considerably less common in ex-smokers than in current smokers. Wheezing, dyspnoea on unhurried walking, dyspnoea on quick walking, and coughing with phlegm were independent predictors of any airflow limitation, OR 1.5, 1.8, 1.4, and 1.6 respectively. (The ORs for severe airflow limitation were 2.4, 2.4, 2.4, and 1.6 respectively.) To be an ex-smoker (OR 2.4) or a current smoker (OR 5.8) was of greater importance. In never- and ex-smokers the chance of having airflow limitation was almost doubled when having two or more, compared with one, of the three symptoms: wheezing, dyspnoea, and coughing with phlegm. Ex-smokers reporting two symptoms had a similar risk of airflow limitation to current smokers not reporting any symptoms. CONCLUSION: Respiratory symptoms are valuable predictors of airflow limitation and should be emphasized when selecting patients for spirometry.

Examination of final-year medical students in general practice.

With general practice recognized as one of three major subjects in the Tromsø medical school curriculum, a matching examination counterpart was needed. The aim was to develop and implement an examination in an authentic general practice setting for final-year medical students. In a general practice surgery, observed by two examiners and one fellow student, the student performs a consultation with a consenting patient who would otherwise have consulted his/her general practitioner (GP). An oral examination follows. It deals with the consultation process, the observed communication between "doctor" and patient, and with clinical problem-solving, taking today's patient as a starting point. The session is closed by discussion of a public-health-related question. Since 2004 the model has been evaluated through questionnaires to students, examiners, and patients, and through a series of review meetings among examiners and students. Examination in general practice using unselected, consenting patients mimics real life to a high degree. It constitutes one important element in a comprehensive assessment process. This is considered to be an acceptable and appropriate way of testing the students before graduation.

Bronchial airflow limitation, smoking, body mass index, and statin use are strongly associated with the C-reactive protein level in the elderly. The Tromsø Study 2001.

BACKGROUND: Bronchial airflow limitation is a known predictor of raised C-reactive protein (CRP) level. The aim of this study was to explore this association in an elderly population, as well as the influence of other known and possible predictors of the CRP level, like smoking and the use of statins and inhaled corticosteroids. POPULATION AND METHODS: The study population consists of 3877 Norwegians aged 60 years or more who took part in the fifth Tromsø study in 2001, a cross-sectional study. The examinations included questionnaires, spirometry and the measurement of CRP. RESULTS: A geometric mean CRP value of 3.15 mg/L was found in subjects with severe airflow limitation (FEV(1)%<50 predicted and FEV(1)/FVC<70%), compared to 1.64 mg/L in subjects with normal spirometry, (p<0.001), and 19% of the subjects with severe airflow limitation had a CRP value above 10 mg/L compared to 4.9% in those with mild airflow limitation or normal spirometry. Elevated body mass index (BMI), smoking, hormone replacement therapy, and increasing age, were also strong independent predictors of increased CRP. Statin use was a strong predictor of decreased CRP level, while the use of inhaled corticosteroids was not associated with decreased CRP values. CONCLUSION: We found a strong link between bronchial airflow limitation and the circulating CRP level in an elderly population, independent of self-reported diseases, medication, smoking, and elevated BMI. The CRP value increased with increasing age in men, but not in women, which may be partly explained by a greater impact of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) morbidity on the CRP level in men than in women. Measuring CRP may show to be a useful part of the diagnostic work-up in COPD patients.

Lung function testing in the elderly--can we still use FEV1/FVC<70% as a criterion of COPD?

BACKGROUND: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) can be diagnosed when the FEV(1)/FVC ratio is below 70%, according to global initiative for chronic obstructive lung disease (GOLD). COPD is known as a disease which is frequently under-diagnosed. However, there is a risk of over diagnosis when this diagnostic threshold is applied among the elderly. AIMS: To contribute to the discussion about the criteria for diagnosing COPD, by describing lung function and pulmonary symptoms in a population aged 60 years or more, and in particular the changes in the mean and 5% percentile of the FEV(1)/FVC ratio by increasing age. METHODS: A cross sectional population-based study was performed in the city of Tromsø, Norway, in 2001-2002. Spirometry was performed in 4102 people 60 years and older (54.6% women), who also filled in a questionnaire. RESULTS: Decreased FEV(1)% predicted and FEV(1)/FVC ratio were associated with smoking, increasing age, and reported pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases. Dyspnoea and coughing were also strongly associated with smoking and reported pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases, but coughing did not become more frequent by increasing age. In never smokers aged 60-69 years the frequency of FEV(1)/FVC ratio<70% was approximately 7% compared to 16-18% in those 70 years or more (p<0.001). FEV(1)/FVC ratio<70% among never smokers aged 60-69 years was just as frequent as FEV(1)/FVC ratio <65% in never smokers older than 70 years. CONCLUSION: Adjustments of the GOLD criteria for diagnosing COPD are needed, and FEV(1)/FVC ratios down to 65% should be regarded as normal when aged 70 years and older.

Reduced pulmonary function is associated with lower levels of endogenous total and free testosterone. The Tromsø study.

Men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease have reduced endogenous testosterone levels. Little is known, however, about the relationship between pulmonary function and endogenous testosterone levels in a general population. In the present study we have examined the cross-sectional associations between sex hormones measured by immunoassay and pulmonary function assessed with spirometry and oxygen saturation in 2,197 men participating in the fifth Tromsø study. The data were analyzed by univariate correlations, multiple linear regression analyses and analyses of variance and covariance. Total and free testosterone were positively and independently associated with forced vitality capacity, FVC (% of predicted) (P = 0.001 and P = 0.006, respectively) and forced expiratory volume in 1 second, FEV(1 )(% predicted) (P = 0.033 and P = 0.002, respectively), and men with severe pulmonary obstruction (FEV(1) % of predicted < 50) had lower free testosterone levels (P = 0.005). In this cross-sectional data from Tromsø, a reduction in pulmonary function was associated with lower levels of total and free testosterone. We suggest that the reduction of total and free testosterone could be due to an alteration of the hypothalamic-pituitary response.

The FEV1/FEV6 ratio is a good substitute for the FEV1/FVC ratio in the elderly.

AIMS: To determine the agreement between the FEV1/FEV6 ratio and the FEV1/FVC ratio in an elderly population. METHOD: The study sample consisted of 3874 participants in a cross-sectional population survey in Tromsö, Norway, aged 60 years or more, in whom acceptable spirometry had been obtained. Mean differences between the FEV1/FEV6 ratio (%) and the FEV1/FVC ratio (%) were calculated according to age, sex, smoking habit, and the degree of airflow limitation. ROC-curve analysis and Kappa-statistics were used to estimate the utility of the FEV1/FEV6 ratio in predicting an FEV1/FVC ratio < 70%. RESULTS: The mean difference between FEV1/FEV6% and FEV1/FVC% was 2.7% in both men and women. The difference between the two measures increased somewhat with increasing age, and was more pronounced with smoking and decreasing FEV1/FVC ratio. The value for the FEV1/FEV6 ratio which best predicted an FEV1/FVC ratio of 70%, was 73%, and a very good agreement was found between these two cut-off values (kappa = 0.86). CONCLUSION: The FEV1/FEV6 ratio appears to be a good substitute for the FEV1/FVC ratio in an elderly population.