Potential cardiovascular consequences of switching from atorvastatin to generic simvastatin in the Netherlands.

BACKGROUND: The statin authorisation form implemented in the Netherlands in January 2009 has led to significant switching of patients from atorvastatin to generic simvastatin, but often to less than equipotent doses. We sought to assess the potential consequences of this. METHODS: A modelling analysis was undertaken using data from a pharmacy database covering the majority of drug prescriptions in the Netherlands. Recent meta-analyses provided data on the dose-specific, lipid-modifying potencies of atorvastatin and simvastatin, and the relationship between reduction in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) achieved by statin therapy and relative reduction in risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). RESULTS: In the first quarter of 2009, 33.7%, 47.2% and 19.1% of Dutch patients initially on atorvastatin were switched to less potent, equipotent and more potent doses of simvastatin, respectively. The net effect was estimated to be a 6.8% increase in LDL-C. Assuming a pre-switch LDL-C of 2 mmol/L, the predicted relative increases (95%CI) in the risks of all-cause mortality and major cardiovascular events were 1.7% (0.9%-2.6%) and 2.8% (1.6%-4.1%), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In the Netherlands, policy-driven switching from atorvastatin to generic simvastatin led overall to less potent doses being used, with possible significant clinical implications.

Deriving reference values and utilities for the QoL-AGHDA in adult GHD.

BACKGROUND: Quality of life (QoL) measures are important in growth hormone (GH) deficiency (GHD) in adults. Ideally, for use in health economics, QoL should be expressed in utilities. The aim of this study was to obtain reference values and utilities for QoL of GHD in adults in Belgium and the Netherlands. METHODS: The study was conducted in three stages: (1) The Quality of Life-Assessment for Growth Hormone Deficiency in Adults (QoL-AGHDA) and the EQ-5D were administered in a representative sample of 6,875 individuals from the Belgian and 1,400 individuals from the general Dutch population. The EQ-5D(index) can be used to estimate utilities. Using a regression, utilities were predicted from the QoL-AGHDA. (2) QoL-AGHDA scores were obtained from 299 Belgian and 234 Dutch adult patients with GHD and no GH replacement. These scores were converted to utilities and compared the burden of disease with other patient groups. (3) To test the criterion validity, the 'standard' EQ-5D(index) was used in a subsample of 64 Dutch GHD patients and compared with the predicted utilities. RESULTS: We obtained data from 1,026 Belgian (response rate = 15%) and 1,038 Dutch respondents (response rate = 74%). The Belgian mean QoL-AGHDA value was 6.95 (90% range = 14.00), and the Dutch mean was 5.48 (range = 13.00). The R (2) of the regression model to predict the EQ-5D(index) was 0.360 (Belgium) and 0.482 (the Netherlands). We demonstrated a considerable burden of disease in GHD patients, comparable to patients with hypertension or with type II diabetes. The criterion validity was 0.407 (intraclass correlation, ICC). CONCLUSIONS: Interventions in GHD can now be evaluated more validly in Belgium and the Netherlands.

The impact of healthcare costs in the last year of life and in all life years gained on the cost-effectiveness of cancer screening.

It is under debate whether healthcare costs related to death and in life years gained (LysG) due to life saving interventions should be included in economic evaluations. We estimated the impact of including these costs on cost-effectiveness of cancer screening. We obtained health insurance, home care, nursing homes, and mortality data for 2.1 million inhabitants in the Netherlands in 1998-1999. Costs related to death were approximated by the healthcare costs in the last year of life (LastYL), by cause and age of death. Costs in LYsG were estimated by calculating the healthcare costs in any life year. We calculated the change in cost-effectiveness ratios (CERs) if unrelated healthcare costs in the LastYL or in LYsG would be included. Costs in the LastYL were on average 33% higher for persons dying from cancer than from any cause. Including costs in LysG increased the CER by 4040 euro in women, and by 4100 euro in men. Of these, 660 euro in women, and 890 euro in men, were costs in the LastYL. Including unrelated healthcare costs in the LastYL or in LYsG will change the comparative cost-effectiveness of healthcare programmes. The CERs of cancer screening programmes will clearly increase, with approximately 4000 euro. However, because of the favourable CER's, including unrelated healthcare costs will in general have limited policy implications.

Patients' preferences for osteoporosis drug treatment: a discrete choice experiment.

UNLABELLED: Active case finding for osteoporosis is used to identify patients at high fracture risk who may benefit from preventive drug treatment. We investigated the relative weight that women place on various aspects of preventive drugs in a discrete choice experiment. Our patients said they were prepared to take preventive drugs even if side effects were expected. INTRODUCTION: Active case finding for osteoporosis is used to identify patients who may benefit from preventive drugs. We aimed to elicit the relative weight that patients place on various aspects of preventive drug treatment for osteoporosis. METHODS: We designed a discrete choice experiment, in which women had to choose between drug profiles that differed in five treatment attributes: effectiveness, side effects (nausea), total treatment duration, route of drug administration, and out-of-pocket costs. We included 120 women aged 60 years and older, identified by osteoporosis case finding in 34 general practices in the Netherlands. A conditional logit regression model was used to analyse the relative importance of treatment attributes, the trade-offs that women were willing to make between attributes, and their willingness to pay. RESULTS: All treatment attributes proved to be important for women's choices. A reduction of the relative 10-year risk of hip fracture by 40% or more by the drug was considered to compensate for nausea as a side effect. Women were prepared to pay an out-of-pocket contribution for the currently available drug treatment (bisphosphonate) if the fracture risk reduction was at least 12%. CONCLUSIONS: Women identified by active osteoporosis case finding stated to be prepared to take preventive drugs, even if side effects were expected and some out-of-pocket contribution was required.

Methodological issues in comparing injury incidence across countries.

The primary objective was to describe the methodological challenges and devise solutions to compare injury incidence across countries. The research design was a mixed methods study, consisting of a consultation with an expert group and comparison of injury surveillance systems and data from ten European countries. A subset of fractures, selected radiologically verifiable fractures and a method of checking the national representativeness of sample emergency department data were devised and are proposed for further development. These methodological considerations and developments will be further refined and tested and should prove useful tools for those who need to compare injury incidence data across countries.

An economic evaluation of the use of TNP on full-thickness wounds.

OBJECTIVE: Topical negative pressure (TNP) (vacuum therapy) is frequently used in the management of acute, traumatic, infected and chronic full-thickness wounds. This prospective clinical randomised trial compared the costs of TNP with conventional therapy (moist gauze) in the management of full-thickness wounds that required surgical closure. METHOD: The direct medical costs of the total number of resources needed to achieve a healthy, granulating wound bed that was 'ready for surgical therapy' were calculated. RESULTS: Fifty-four patients admitted to a department of plastic and reconstructive surgery were recruited into the trial. Cost analysis showed significantly higher mean material expenses for wounds treated with TNP (414euros+/-229euros [SD]) compared with conventional therapy (15euros+/-11euros; p<0.0001 ), but significantly lower mean nursing expenses (33euros+/-31 euros and 83euros+/-58euros forTNP and conventional therapy respectively; p<0.0001). Hospitalisation costs were lower in theTNP group (1788euros+/-1060euros) than in the conventional treatment group (2467euros+/-1336euros; p<0.043) due to an on average shorter duration until they were'ready for surgical therapy'. There was no significant difference in total costs per patient between the two therapies (2235euros+/-1301euros for TNP versus 2565euros+/-1384euros for conventional therapy). CONCLUSION: TNP had higher material costs. However, these were compensated by the lower number of time-consuming dressing changes and the shorter duration until they were 'ready for surgical therapy', resulting in the therapy being equally as expensive as conventional moist gauze. DECLARATION OF INTEREST: This work was partly supported by the Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Esser Foundation, and KCI Medical, Houten,The Netherlands. The authors have no conflicts of interest.

Health problems lead to considerable productivity loss at work among workers with high physical load jobs.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the feasibility and validity of two instruments for the measurement of health-related productivity loss at work. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING: A cross-sectional study was conducted in two occupational populations with a high prevalence of health problems: industrial workers (n=388) and construction workers (n=182). We collected information on self-reported productivity during the previous 2 weeks and during the last work day with the Health and Labor Questionnaire (HLQ) and the Quantity and Quality instrument (QQ), with added data on job characteristics, general health, presence of musculoskeletal complaints, sick leave, and health-care consumption. For construction workers, we validated self-reported productivity with objective information on daily work output from 19 work site observations. RESULTS: About half the workers with health problems on the last working day reported reduced work productivity (QQ), or 10.7% of all industrial workers and 11.8% of all construction workers, resulting in a mean loss of 2.0 hr/day per worker with reduced work productivity. The proportion of workers with reduced productivity was significantly lower on the HLQ: 5.3% of industrial workers and 6.5% of construction workers. Reduced work productivity on the HLQ and the QQ was significantly associated with musculoskeletal complaints, worse physical, mental and general health, and recent absenteeism. The QQ and HLQ questionnaires demonstrated poor agreement on the reporting of reduced productivity. Self-reported productivity on the QQ correlated significantly with objective work output (r=.48). CONCLUSION: Health problems may lead to considerable sickness presenteeism. The QQ measurement instrument is better understandable, and more feasible for jobs with low opportunities for catching up on backlogs.

Setting priorities in injury prevention: the application of an incidence based cost model.

OBJECTIVES: To make detailed calculations on the direct medical costs of injuries in the Netherlands to support priority setting in prevention. METHODS: A computerised, incidence based model for cost calculations was developed and incidence figures derived from the Dutch Injury Surveillance System (LIS) which provides national estimates of the annual number of patients treated at an emergency department. A comprehensive set of cost elements (that is, health care segments) was obtained from health care registrations and a LIS patient survey. Patients were assigned to specific groups based on LIS characteristics (for example, age, injury type). Average costs per patient group were calculated for each cost element and total costs estimated by adding costs for all patient groups. RESULTS: The direct costs of injury average 2000 guilders per injury patient attending an emergency department. Home and leisure injuries account for over half of the costs, although cost per patient is highest for motor vehicle injuries. Injuries to the lower extremities account for almost half of the total costs and are incurred mainly in the home or recreation. Motor vehicle crashes are the major cause of head injuries. CONCLUSIONS: The model permits continuous and detailed monitoring of injury costs. Estimates can be compiled for any LIS patient group or injury subcategory. The results can be used to rank injuries for prioritisation of prevention by injury categories (for example, traffic, home, or leisure), or by specific scenarios (for example, fall at home).

Healthcare costs of intellectual disability in the Netherlands: a cost-of-illness perspective.

Healthcare costs are continuously increasing, and impose a strong responsibility on governments for an adequate allocation of resources among healthcare provisions and patients. The aims of the present study were to describe the healthcare costs of intellectual disability (ID) and other mental disorders in the context of the total costs of all other diseases, and to determinate the future need of healthcare resources, especially for ID and mental disorders. The present authors performed a top-down cost-of-illness study comprising all healthcare costs of the Netherlands in 1994. Data on healthcare use were obtained for all 22 healthcare sectors, and used to ascribe costs to disease groups, age and sex. Costs of mental disorders are by far the largest in the Dutch healthcare system. Some 25.8% of total disease-specific costs could be ascribed to mental disorders: psychiatric conditions, 10.6%; ID, 9.0%; and dementia, 6.2%. There are large differences between age and sex groups. The costs of ID and schizophrenia are higher among men, and the costs of dementia and depression are higher among women. The age pattern shows two peaks: the first occurs at 25-35 years of age (ID and psychiatric conditions); and the second at 75-85 years of age (dementia). Time trends between 1988 and 1994 show an average annual growth rate of 5.2% for total healthcare costs: psychiatric conditions, 4.8%; ID, 5.4%; and dementia, 9.4%. Demographic projections suggest a less-than-average cost increase for ID and psychiatric disorders (with annual growth rates of 0.2% and 0.4%, respectively) compared to the costs of dementia and total healthcare (with annual growth rates of 1.6% and 0.9%, respectively). Intellectual disability and mental disorders represent a large part of healthcare use in the Netherlands. The costs will inevitably increase because of the ageing of the population and increasing life expectancy among people with disabilities. Non-specific cost containment measures may endanger the quality of care for vulnerable people at younger and older ages.

Cost analysis of PAPNET-assisted vs. conventional Pap smear evaluation in primary screening of cervical smears.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the difference in costs between PAPNET-assisted and conventional microscopy of cervical smears when used as a primary screening tool. STUDY DESIGN: We performed time measurements of the initial screening of smears by four cytotechnologists in one laboratory. Time was measured in 816 conventionally screened smears and in 614 smears with PAPNET-assisted screening. Data were collected on the components of initial screening, clerical activities and other activities in the total work time of cytotechnologists in the routine situation and on resource requirements for both techniques. RESULTS: PAPNET saved an average of 22% on initial screening time per smear. Due to costs of processing and additional equipment, the costs of PAPNET-assisted screening were estimated to be $2.85 (and at least $1.79) higher per smear than conventional microscopy. The difference in costs is sensitive to the rate of time saving, the possibility of saving on quality control procedures and the component of the initial screening time in the total work time of cytotechnologists. CONCLUSION: Although PAPNET is time saving as compared with conventional microscopy, the associated reduction in personnel costs is outweighed by the costs of scanning the slides and additional equipment. This conclusion holds under a variety of assumptions. Using PAPNET instead of conventional microscopy as a primary screening tool will make cervical cancer screening less cost-effective unless the costs of PAPNET are considerably reduced and its sensitivity and/or specificity are considerably improved.

[The cost of sickness in the Netherlands in 1994; the main determinants were advanced age and disabling conditions]. / Kosten van ziekten in Nederland in 1994; grootste zorgverbruik door hoge leeftijd en beperkende aandoeningen.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the costs of health care in 1994, the development of the costs assigned to specific diseases, and the future costs. DESIGN: Descriptive. SETTING: Erasmus University, Department of Public Health, Rotterdam, the Netherlands. METHOD: For each health care sector, costs were allocated to 62 diagnostic groups, age and sex making maximal use of national registries and other sources with data on health care use in the Netherlands. RESULTS: More than 80% of the 60 billion Dutch guilders that were spent on health care in 1994 could be assigned to specific diseases. Most costs were made for non-fatal diseases like mental deficiency, dementia and musculoskeletal disease. Except for cardiovascular disease, the share of major causes of death in the total costs was not significant. Average costs per inhabitant were low during youth and adulthood but increased exponentially with age from age 50 onwards. Between 1988 en 1994, health care costs experienced an annual growth rate of 5.2%, caused by price and wage increases (one half), ageing (a quarter) and other effects on health care costs such as epidemiological and technological change (a quarter). CONCLUSION: The main determinants of health care use in the Netherlands were old age and disabling conditions. Due to ageing and other influences, real health care costs in the years to come will increase by an average annual rate of 2.4%.

Demographic and epidemiological determinants of healthcare costs in Netherlands: cost of illness study.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the demands on healthcare resources caused by different types of illnesses and variation with age and sex. DESIGN: Information on healthcare use was obtained from all 22 healthcare sectors in the Netherlands. Most important sectors (hospitals, nursing homes, inpatient psychiatric care, institutions for mentally disabled people) have national registries. Total expenditures for each sector were subdivided into 21 age groups, sex, and 34 diagnostic groups. SETTING: Netherlands, 1994. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Proportion of healthcare budget spent on each category of disease and cost of health care per person at various ages. RESULTS: After the first year of life, costs per person for children were lowest. Costs rose slowly throughout adult life and increased exponentially from age 50 onwards till the oldest age group (> or = 95). The top five areas of healthcare costs were mental retardation, musculoskeletal disease (predominantly joint disease and dorsopathy), dementia, a heterogeneous group of other mental disorders, and ill defined conditions. Stroke, all cancers combined, and coronary heart disease ranked 7, 8, and 10, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The main determinants of healthcare use in the Netherlands are old age and disabling conditions, particularly mental disability. A large share of the healthcare budget is spent on long term nursing care, and this cost will inevitably increase further in an ageing population. Non-specific cost containment measures may endanger the quality of care for old and mentally disabled people.

Economic evaluation of tuberculosis control in Armenia : a cost-effectiveness analysis of the WHO strategy / prepared by W.J. Meerding

An economic evaluation was made of the WHO tuberculosis control strategy in Armenia. The evaluation concentrated on newly detected smear-positive patients. This strategy, characterized by rapid case detection, mandatory hospitalization during the intensive phase of treatment and shortened treatment duration, was compared with the strategy formerly employed, characterized by extensive hospitalization and lengthy treatment. Data on diagnostic and treatment procedures regarding TB patients, as well as costs of diagnostic procedures, drug regimens, hospital days and outpatient visits, were gathered and compared with official guidelines for TB treatment. The strategy implemented according to WHO guidelines (referred to hereafter as 'the WHO strategy') turned out to be more cost-effective than the strategy formerly employed for TB control in Armenia (referred to hereafter as 'the old strategy'), with medical costs amounting to $176 and $280 respectively per cured patient. This is mainly due to the shortened treatment period and shorter length of hospitalization, although hospitalization rates are much higher in the WHO strategy, combined with higher cure rates (72% on average compared with 65% in the old strategy). Even when relatively favourable figures were assumed for the old strategy, the WHO strategy was slightly more cost-effective. The use of diagnostic procedures and related costs in patient follow-up were difficult to measure empirically in both strategies. Data from several TB dispensaries and the main TB hospital indicate a decreasing use of smears and X-rays per patient since the introduction of the WHO strategy. A more efficient use of diagnostic procedures in the WHO strategy is likely, but could not be proven by empirical data. The main outcome of the evaluation, therefore, might be conservative rather than progressive