ABSTRACT
The efficacy of a smartphone app intervention (BabyMind©) in facilitating mind-mindedness was investigated in a randomized controlled trial, assigning mothers and their 6-month-olds (N = 152; 72 girls, 146 White) to intervention or active control conditions. Mothers who had received the BabyMind© app intervention scored higher for appropriate (d = .61, 95% CI .28, .94) and lower for non-attuned (d = -.55, 95% CI -.92, -.18) mind-related comments at follow-up (age 12 months), compared with their control group counterparts. Adjusting for missing data did not alter this pattern of findings. Mothers' baseline parental reflective functioning did not moderate these relations. Results are discussed in terms of the benefits of early intervention and exploring the efficacy of the app in more diverse populations.
Subject(s)
Mobile Applications , Female , Humans , Infant , Mother-Child Relations , Mothers , Early Intervention, EducationalABSTRACT
Psychosocial factors have been found to relate to parental reflective functioning (PRF), a parent's ability to mentalize about themselves and their child. Relations between maternal psychosocial risk factors and PRF were investigated in a community sample. A sample of mothers (n = 146) was assessed for risk factors when infants were 6 months, infant temperament was assessed using an observational measure, and PRF was assessed with the Parent Development Interview-Revised (PDI). PRF was measured again with the Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (PRFQ) when children were 4 years (n = 105) and 5 years (n = 92), with an additional sample of mothers (n = 48) tested at these two timepoints. Results showed that in infancy, total maternal psychosocial risk related to lower PDI-PRF; regression analyses highlighted low socioeconomic status, unplanned pregnancy, and low maternal anxiety as independent predictors of lower PDI-PRF. PDI-PRF scores at 6 months did not relate to PRFQ scores, but PRFQ subscales showed stability over time from age 4-5. Results are discussed with regard to the impact of maternal psychosocial risk and infant temperament on PRF and the stability and concordance of PRF measures.
Subject(s)
Mothers , Parents , Female , Child , Infant , Pregnancy , Humans , Child, Preschool , Parents/psychology , Mothers/psychology , Surveys and Questionnaires , Risk Factors , Low Socioeconomic StatusABSTRACT
The aim of this research was to develop a new observation-based measure for assessing caregivers' mind-mindedness in the preschool years and investigate whether this measure could explain the link between mothers' early appropriate mind-related comments and children's later mentalizing abilities. The new measure was developed using a sample of mothers and 44-month-olds (N = 171), characterizing mind-mindedness in terms of (a) solicited child involvement, (b) adaptive communication, and (c) internal state talk. These indices were positively related to established assessments of mind-mindedness at 8, 44, and 61 months. Positive associations were also observed with children's later mentalizing abilities. The new measure of mind-mindedness did not, however, mediate the relation between mind-mindedness in the first year of life and children's mentalizing abilities. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
Subject(s)
Mentalization , Caregivers , Child , Child, Preschool , Educational Status , Female , Humans , Mother-Child Relations , MothersABSTRACT
Neural and psychological processes in pregnancy may be important antecedents for caregiving postpartum. Employing event-related potentials, we examined neural reactivity to infant emotional faces during the third trimester of pregnancy in expectant mothers (n = 38) and expectant fathers (n = 30). Specifically, expectant parents viewed infant distress and infant neutral faces while electroencephalography was simultaneously recorded. As a psychological measure, we assessed prenatal mind-mindedness towards the unborn child and examined whether neural processing of infant cues was associated with levels of mind-mindedness. Expectant fathers evidenced greater P300 reactivity to infant distress, relative to neutral, faces than expectant mothers. Furthermore, P300 reactivity to infant distress, relative to infant neutral, faces was associated with levels of prenatal mind-mindedness in expectant fathers but not expectant mothers. These findings indicate significant sex differences in the prenatal neural processing of infant cues and relations between neural reactivity to infant distress and the emergence of parental mind-mindedness.
Subject(s)
Emotions , Fathers , Child , Electroencephalography , Evoked Potentials , Female , Humans , Infant , Male , Mother-Child Relations , Mothers , Postpartum Period , PregnancyABSTRACT
Relations between mind-mindedness (assessed using the describe-your-child interview) and stress were investigated in parents of children with developmental disorders (ADHD, n = 51, ASD, n = 23, Down's Syndrome, n = 38, and 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome, 22q11.2DS, n = 32) and typically-developing children (n = 89). Mind-mindedness did not differ across diagnostic groups, and mind-mindedness predicted parenting stress across groups. Parenting stress was lowest in the typically-developing and Down's Syndrome groups. Across all groups, mind-minded and positive descriptions predicted lower parenting stress, and negative descriptions predicted higher stress. In the developmental disorder groups, describing the children with reference to their disorder was negatively correlated with mind-mindedness. Results are discussed with regard to interventions for families where children have developmental disorders.
Subject(s)
Developmental Disabilities/psychology , Mindfulness/methods , Parenting/psychology , Parents/psychology , Stress, Psychological/psychology , Thinking/physiology , Adolescent , Adult , Child , Child, Preschool , Developmental Disabilities/diagnosis , Female , Humans , Male , Stress, Psychological/diagnosisABSTRACT
Mind-mindedness is a measure of the tendency to represent significant others in internal state terms and is central to supportive parent-infant relationships. The two studies reported here explored whether mind-mindedness generalizes to representations of unknown individuals, using a novel task that assessed individual differences in adults' tendency to interpret others' behavior with reference to their internal states: the Unknown Mother-Infant Interaction Task (UMIIT). We compared UMIIT performance with measures of mind-mindedness from (a) adults' descriptions of close friends and partners (Study 1, N = 96) and (b) mothers' appropriate versus nonattuned comments on their infants' internal states (Study 2, N = 56). In line with the proposal that mind-mindedness is a relational construct, UMIIT performance was unrelated to mind-mindedness in both studies.
La consciente mentalidad es una medida que tiende a representar a quienes nos son importantes en términos de un estado interno y es esencial para las relaciones de mucho apoyo entre progenitores e infantes. Los dos estudios que se reportan aquí exploraron si la mentalidad consciente generaliza al punto de representar a individuos desconocidos, usando una novedosa tarea que evalúa las diferencias individuales en la tendencia de los adultos a interpretar la conducta de otros en función de sus estados mentales: El Trabajo de la Interacción Madre Desconocida-Infante (UMIIT). Comparamos la actuación de UMIIT con las medidas de mentalidad consciente de (a) descripciones de adultos sobre amigos cercanos y parejas (Estudio 1, N = 96), y (b) los comentarios apropiados de las madres versus sus no armonizados comentarios con respecto a los estados internos de sus infantes (Estudio 2, N = 56). Alineado con la propuesta de que la mentalidad consciente es un concepto de la relación, la actuación de UMIIT no estuvo relacionada con la mentalidad consciente en ninguno de los estudios.
L'esprit-qualité mentale (en anglais mind-mindedness) est une mesure de la tendance à représenter les personnes qui nous sont chères en des termes d'état interne. Elle est centrale aux relations parent-enfant positives. Les deux études dont on fait état ici ont exploré si l'esprit-qualité mentale généralise les représentations d'individus inconnus, en utilisant une tâche nouvelle qui a évalué les différences individuelles dans la tendance des adultes à interpréter le comportement des autres en référence à leurs états internes: la Tâche de Mère Inconnue-Interaction du Nourrisson (UMIIT en anglais, soit Unknown Mother-Infant Interaction Task). Nous avons comparé la performance UMIIT aux mesures de l'esprit-qualité mentale de (a) descriptions d'adultes de leurs amis proches et de leurs partenaires (Etude 1, N = 96) et (b) de commentaires appropriés par rapport à pas trop appropriés des mères sur les états internes de leurs nourrissons (Etude 2, N = 56). Conformément à la proposition selon laquelle l'esprit-qualité mentale est une construction relationnelle, la performance de l'UMIIT n'était pas liée à l'esprit-qualité mentale dans les deux études.
Subject(s)
Mother-Child Relations , Mothers , Adult , Female , Humans , Infant , ParentsABSTRACT
This study aimed to explore the factor structure, reliability, and validity of a Korean translation of the Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (PRFQ). The PRFQ consists of three subscales: prementalizing modes, certainty about mental states, and interest and curiosity in mental states. A convenience sample of 163 Korean parents completed the K-PRFQ. Exploratory factor analysis showed three factors mapped on to the original PRFQ factors, but items from the original prementalizing modes subscale clustered into two additional factors. Data from a subsample (n = 67) showed that the certainty about mental states and interest and curiosity in mental states subscales correlated positively with more optimal self-reported parenting. We discuss the validity of using the PRFQ in collectivistic cultures.
Este estudio se propuso explorar la estructura de factores, la confiabilidad y la validez de una traducción al coreano del Cuestionario de Funcionamiento de Reflexión del Progenitor (PRFO; Luyten, Mayes, Nijssens y Fonagy, 2017). El PRFQ consiste en tres escalas: Modos de Pre-mentalización, la Certeza acerca de estados mentales y el Interés y curiosidad por los estados mentales. Un conveniente grupo muestra de 163 progenitores coreanos completó el K-PRFQ. Los exploratorios análisis de factores mostraron tres factores identificados dentro de los factores del PRFQ original, sin embargo, temas de la sub-escala original de Modos de Pre-mentalización se agruparon en dos factores adicionales. Los datos provenientes de un sub-grupo muestra (n = 67) mostraron que la Certeza acerca de estados mentales y el Interés y curiosidad por los estados mentales se correlacionaron positivamente con una auto-reportada más óptima crianza. Discutimos la validez de usar el PRFQ en culturas colectivistas.
Cette étude s'est donné pour but d'explorer le facteur structure, fiabilité et validité d'une traduction coréenne du Questionnaire de Fonctionnement Réflexif Parental (PRFQ; Luyten, Mayes, Nijssens, & Fonagy, 2017). Le PRFQ consiste en trois sous-échelles: Modes pré-mentalisation, Certitude sur les états mentaux, et Intérêt et curiosité dans les états mentaux. Un échantillon de convenance de 163 parents coréens a rempli le K-PRFQ. Une analyse exploratoire de facteur a montré trois facteurs mappés sur les facteurs d'origine du PRFQl, mais des aspects de la sous-échelle des modes de pré-mentalisation se sont regroupés en deux facteurs de plus. Les données d'un sous-échantillon (n = 67) ont montré que la Certitude sur les états mentaux et les sous-échelles d'Intérêt et la curiosité dans les états mentaux étaient en corrélation positive avec un parentage auto-rapporté optimal. Nous avons discuté la validité de l'utilisation du PRFQ dans les cultures collectivistes.
Subject(s)
Parenting , Parents , Humans , Reproducibility of Results , Republic of Korea , Surveys and QuestionnairesABSTRACT
Relations between mothers' mind-mindedness (appropriate attunement to their infants' internal states) at 6 and 12 months and infants' early symbolic play during infant-mother pretense at 12 and 18 months were investigated in a sample of 43 mothers and infants. Mothers' appropriate mind-related comments were associated with average level, length, complexity, and maturity level of symbolic play. Specific sub-categories of appropriate mind-related comments were identified as independent predictors of children's symbolic play. Appropriate comments about desires and cognitions at 6 months were associated with average level and length of episodes, as well as with maturity level of symbolic play at 12 months. Longitudinal stability in the appropriateness and content of mothers' mind-related comments was also investigated. The results are discussed in terms of the proposal that attunement to specific types of internal state should vary as a function of infant age in order to index mind-mindedness.
Subject(s)
Imagination , Infant Behavior , Mother-Child Relations , Mothers/psychology , Play and Playthings , Adult , Cognition , Emotions , Female , Humans , Infant , Longitudinal Studies , Male , Mindfulness , Theory of MindABSTRACT
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) that has caused the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic represents the greatest international biopsychosocial emergency the world has faced for a century, and psychological science has an integral role to offer in helping societies recover. The aim of this paper is to set out the shorter- and longer-term priorities for research in psychological science that will (a) frame the breadth and scope of potential contributions from across the discipline; (b) enable researchers to focus their resources on gaps in knowledge; and (c) help funders and policymakers make informed decisions about future research priorities in order to best meet the needs of societies as they emerge from the acute phase of the pandemic. The research priorities were informed by an expert panel convened by the British Psychological Society that reflects the breadth of the discipline; a wider advisory panel with international input; and a survey of 539 psychological scientists conducted early in May 2020. The most pressing need is to research the negative biopsychosocial impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic to facilitate immediate and longer-term recovery, not only in relation to mental health, but also in relation to behaviour change and adherence, work, education, children and families, physical health and the brain, and social cohesion and connectedness. We call on psychological scientists to work collaboratively with other scientists and stakeholders, establish consortia, and develop innovative research methods while maintaining high-quality, open, and rigorous research standards.
Subject(s)
Coronavirus Infections/epidemiology , Pneumonia, Viral/epidemiology , Psychology/trends , Adult , COVID-19 , Female , Humans , Male , Middle Aged , Pandemics , Research DesignABSTRACT
The present study reports on the first evaluation of a parenting intervention utilizing a smartphone app, BabyMind. The intervention aimed to facilitate mothers' mind-mindedness-attunement to their infants' internal states. Mothers in the intervention group (n = 90) used the BabyMind app from their infants' births and were followed up at age 6 months (n = 66). Mothers in the control group (n = 151) were recruited when their infants were age 6 months and had never used the BabyMind app. Mind-mindedness when interacting with their infants was significantly higher in intervention group mothers than in control group mothers. The intervention was equally effective in facilitating mind-mindedness in young and older mothers. These findings are discussed in terms of the potential for interventions utilizing smartphone apps to improve parenting and children's developmental outcome in vulnerable and hard-to-reach groups.
Subject(s)
Child Development/physiology , Mindfulness , Mobile Applications , Mother-Child Relations/psychology , Mothers/psychology , Smartphone , Adolescent , Adult , Case-Control Studies , Educational Status , Female , Humans , Infant , Infant, Newborn , Middle Aged , Parenting/psychologyABSTRACT
Relations between mothers' mind-mindedness (appropriate and nonattuned mind-related comments) at 8 months (N = 206), and children's educational attainment at ages 7 (n = 158) and 11 (n = 156) were investigated in a British sample. Appropriate mind-related comments were positively correlated with reading and mathematics performance at both ages but only in the low-socioeconomic status (SES) group. Path analyses showed that in the low-SES group, appropriate mind-related comments directly predicted age-11 reading performance, with age-4 verbal ability mediating the relation between appropriate mind-related comments and age-7 reading. In contrast, maternal sensitivity and infant-mother attachment security did not predict children's educational attainment. These findings are discussed in terms of genetic and environmental contributions to reading and mathematics performance.
Subject(s)
Academic Success , Maternal Behavior/psychology , Mother-Child Relations/psychology , Parenting/psychology , Social Class , Vulnerable Populations/psychology , Adult , Child , Child, Preschool , Female , Humans , Infant , Male , United KingdomABSTRACT
Maternal elaborative reminiscing supports preschool children's autobiographical memory, self-concept, and emotion understanding. What are the factors contributing to mothers' elaborative style of reminiscing? In a longitudinal community sample (n = 170 at the final data point), this study explored the role of maternal depression (8-44 months), maternal sensitivity and maternal mind-mindedness (8 months), as well as child factors of joint attention (15 months), attachment security (15 months), and language (26 months) for mother-child reminiscing about a positive (happy) and a negative (scared) event at 44 months. Mothers could be classed into two groups of low versus increasing depression from 8 to 44 months, yet maternal depression did not uniquely predict mother-child reminiscing after accounting for maternal sensitivity and other factors. Instead, maternal sensitivity, children's joint attention, and language uniquely predicted children's elaborations about the scared event at 44 months, and maternal sensitivity uniquely predicted mothers' elaborations about the scared event at 44 months. Mothers who are more sensitive in early interactions may later be better at engaging their children when reminiscing about negative emotions. These findings have implications for the design of interventions targeted at supporting mothers to engage in elaborative reminiscing with their preschool children.
Subject(s)
Emotions , Memory, Episodic , Mother-Child Relations , Mothers/psychology , Self Concept , Adult , Child, Preschool , Female , Humans , Infant , Male , Object AttachmentABSTRACT
Little is known about the relation between levels of restricted and repetitive behavior (RRB) in infants and parent factors. The present study investigated maternal and psychosocial factors (depressive symptoms, socio-economic status, social support) and mother-infant engagement factors (mind-mindedness, sensitivity, and infant-mother attachment security) as predictors of children's RRB at age 26 months in a sample of 206 mothers and children. Maternal depressive symptoms predicted levels of sensory and motor repetitive behavior and rigid, routinized, and ritualistic repetitive behavior. Lower socioeconomic status also predicted independent variance in children's sensory and motor repetitive behavior. The relations between maternal depressive symptoms and both types of RRB were not mediated through observational measures of maternal sensitivity or mind-mindedness at 8 months, or attachment security at 15 months. The results are discussed in terms of whether stress regulation, self-stimulation, and genetic susceptibility can help explain the observed link between maternal depressive symptoms and RRB in the child.
ABSTRACT
One of the deficits observed in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is impaired imaginative play. One form of imaginative play common in many typically developing (TD) children is having an imaginary companion (IC). The occurrence of ICs has not been investigated extensively in children with ASD. We examined differences in parent report of IC between TD and ASD populations in 215 (111 with ASD) gender-matched children aged between 2 and 8 years. Findings indicate that significantly fewer children with ASD created ICs, although there were many between-group similarities in IC forms and functions. Results are discussed in terms of qualitative differences in play, social attributions, and how children with ASD conceptualize their ICs' minds.
Subject(s)
Autism Spectrum Disorder/psychology , Friends , Imagination , Child , Child Development , Child, Preschool , Female , Humans , MaleABSTRACT
Relations between maternal mind-mindedness (appropriate and nonattuned mind-related comments), children's age-2 perspective-taking abilities, and attachment security at 44 (n = 165) and 51 (n = 128) months were investigated. Nonattuned comments predicted insecure preschool attachment, via insecure 15-month attachment security (44-month attachment) and poorer age-2 perspective-taking abilities (51-month attachment). With regard to attachment stability, higher perspective-taking abilities distinguished the stable secure groups from (a) the stable insecure groups and (b) children who changed from secure to insecure (at trend level). These effects were independent of child gender, stressful life events, and socioeconomic status (SES). The contribution of these findings to our understanding of stability and change in attachment security from infancy to the preschool years is discussed.
Subject(s)
Child Development , Maternal Behavior/psychology , Mother-Child Relations , Object Attachment , Theory of Mind , Child, Preschool , Female , Humans , Infant , MaleABSTRACT
A community sample of 192 parents reported on their children's restricted and repetitive behaviors (RRBs) at mean ages 15 months (N = 138), 26 months (N = 191), and 77 months (N = 125) using the Repetitive Behavior Questionnaire-2 (RBQ-2). Consistent with previous factor analytic research, 2 factors were found at each age: 1 comprising repetitive sensory and motor behaviors (RSM), and the other comprising insistence on sameness behaviors including rigidity, routines, and restricted interests (IS). Regression analyses indicated that RSM and IS subtypes develop independently. RSM at 77 months was predicted only by RSM behaviors at 26 months and not by IS behaviors at either 15 or 26 months nor by RSM behaviors at 15 months. IS at 77 months was predicted by IS behaviors at both 15 and 26 months, but not by RSM behaviors at either 15 or 26 months. Our findings provide evidence that there is stability of 2 independent subtypes of RRBs, RSM and IS, across early childhood and that these subtypes develop independently of each other. (PsycINFO Database Record
Subject(s)
Child Development , Stereotyped Behavior , Child , Child Behavior , Child, Preschool , Factor Analysis, Statistical , Female , Follow-Up Studies , Humans , Infant , Longitudinal Studies , Male , Mothers , Regression Analysis , Socioeconomic Factors , Surveys and QuestionnairesABSTRACT
The studies reported here aimed to test the proposal that mind-mindedness is a quality of personal relationships by assessing mind-mindedness in caregiver-child dyads in which the relationship has not spanned the child's life or in which the relationship has been judged dysfunctional. Studies 1 and 2 investigated differences in mind-mindedness between adoptive parents (ns = 89, 36) and biological parents from the general population (ns = 54, 114). Both studies found lower mind-mindedness in adoptive compared with biological parents. The results of Study 2 showed that this group difference was independent of parental mental health and could not fully be explained in terms of children's behavioral difficulties. Study 3 investigated differences in mind-mindedness in foster carers (n = 122), parents whose children had been the subject of a child protection plan (n = 172), and a community sample of biological parents (n = 128). The level of mind-mindedness in foster carers and parents who were involved with child protection services was identical and lower than that in the community sample; children's behavioral difficulties could not account for the difference between the 2 groups of biological parents. In all 3 studies, nonbiological carers' tendency to describe their children with reference to preadoption or placement experiences was negatively related to mind-mindedness. These findings are in line with mind-mindedness being a relational construct. (PsycINFO Database Record
Subject(s)
Adoption/psychology , Child Protective Services , Foster Home Care/psychology , Parenting/psychology , Parents/psychology , Adolescent , Age Factors , Child , Child Behavior Disorders , Child, Preschool , Female , Humans , Male , Mental Health , Multivariate Analysis , Time FactorsABSTRACT
Major developments in attachment research over the past 2 decades have introduced parental mentalization as a predictor of infant-parent attachment security. Parental mentalization is the degree to which parents show frequent, coherent, or appropriate appreciation of their infants' internal states. The present study examined the triangular relations between parental mentalization, parental sensitivity, and attachment security. A total of 20 effect sizes (N = 974) on the relation between parental mentalization and attachment, 82 effect sizes (N = 6,664) on the relation between sensitivity and attachment, and 24 effect sizes (N = 2,029) on the relation between mentalization and sensitivity were subjected to multilevel meta-analyses. The results showed a pooled correlation of r = .30 between parental mentalization and infant attachment security, and rs of .25 for the correlations between sensitivity and attachment security, and between parental mentalization and sensitivity. A meta-analytic structural equation model was performed to examine the combined effects of mentalization and sensitivity as predictors of infant attachment. Together, the predictors explained 12% of the variance in attachment security. After controlling for the effect of sensitivity, the relation between parental mentalization and attachment remained, r = .24; the relation between sensitivity and attachment remained after controlling for parental mentalization, r = .19. Sensitivity also mediated the relation between parental mentalization and attachment security, r = .07, suggesting that mentalization exerts both direct and indirect influences on attachment security. The results imply that parental mentalization should be incorporated into existing models that map the predictors of infant-parent attachment. (PsycINFO Database Record
Subject(s)
Infant Behavior/psychology , Mindfulness , Parent-Child Relations , Parents/psychology , Humans , Infant , Models, PsychologicalABSTRACT
Studies 1 and 2 investigated how maternal severe mental illness (SMI) related to mothers' mind-mindedness (appropriate and nonattuned mind-related comments). Study 1 showed that mothers with SMI (n = 50) scored lower than psychologically well mothers for both appropriate and nonattuned comments, whereas mothers with SMI in Study 2 (n = 22) had elevated levels of nonattuned comments. Study 2 also tested the efficacy of a single-session video-feedback intervention to facilitate mind-mindedness in mothers with SMI. The intervention was associated with a decrease in nonattuned comments, such that on discharge, mothers did not differ from psychologically well controls. Study 3 assessed infant-mother attachment security in a small subset of intervention-group mothers from Study 2 (n = 9) and a separate group of standard care mothers (n = 30) at infant mean age 17.1 months (SD = 2.1). Infants whose mothers completed the intervention were more likely to be securely attached and less likely to be classified as insecure-disorganized than those of mothers who received standard care. We conclude that a single session of video-feedback to facilitate mind-mindedness in mothers with SMI may have benefits for mother-infant interaction into the second year of life.
Subject(s)
Mental Disorders/therapy , Mother-Child Relations , Mothers/psychology , Object Attachment , Psychotherapy/methods , Verbal Behavior , Adult , Feedback, Psychological , Female , Hospitalization , Humans , Infant , Male , Mental Disorders/psychology , Treatment OutcomeABSTRACT
Relations between restricted and repetitive behavior at age 26 months and children's concurrent (N = 203) and later (n = 161) social cognition and language development were investigated. Restricted and repetitive behavior was assessed using two scales: sensory and motor repetitive behaviors and rigidity/routines/restricted interests. Language was assessed at ages 26 and 51 months; social cognition was assessed at ages 26 (symbolic play) and 51 and 61 months (theory of mind). Sensory and motor repetitive behavior was negatively related to children's (a) language performance at 26 and 51 months, (b) instructed symbolic play at 26 months, and (c) theory of mind performance at 51 and 61 months. Path analyses showed that children's sensory and motor repetitive behavior at age 26 months was related to lower receptive verbal ability and theory of mind at 51 months, which led to lower theory of mind at 61 months. Rigidity/routines/restricted interests at 26 months were unrelated to concurrent and later social cognition and language. These results are discussed in terms of the pathways via which sensory and motor repetitive behavior might impact negatively on development.
