Changes in Wolf Occupancy and Feeding Habits in the Northern Apennines: Results of Long-Term Predator-Prey Monitoring.

The comprehension of the factors that have influenced the recent changes in wolf (Canis lupus) range and diet that have occurred in our study area, characterized by a highly heterogeneous landscape, can shed light on their current process of expansion toward the plain. Wolf presence was monitored using a standardized protocol from 2007 to 2022 by carrying out eight monitoring sessions organized in seasonal surveys, during which, we collected wolf presence data. To model wolf range dynamics, we used dynamic occupancy models considering land cover types and wild ungulate abundances as covariates. Moreover, we studied the wolf diet through scat analysis, identifying the consumed items from undigested remains. Wolf occupancy in the study area progressed from mountains to lower hills gradually; the observed range dynamics were driven by prey abundance and human presence: in particular, the probability of colonization increased with roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) abundance, whereas the probability of extinction increased with urban areas. The wolf diet showed a gradual shift from the prevalent consumption of wild boar (2007-2008 and 2011-2012) to the prevalent consumption of roe deer (continuously increasing from 2015 onward). Our results might be related to a specific adaptation of the predator to the local ecology of the most consumed species: the roe deer.

Erratum: Wolf predation on wild ungulates: how slope and habitat cover influence the localization of kill sites.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1093/cz/zox031.].

Niche partitioning between sympatric wild canids: the case of the golden jackal (Canis aureus) and the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in north-eastern Italy.

BACKGROUND: Two coexisting species with similar ecological requirements avoid or reduce competition by changing the extent of their use of a given resource. Numerous coexistence mechanisms have been proposed, but species interactions can also be aggressive; thus, generally a subordinate species modifies its realized niche to limit the probability of direct encounters with the dominant species. We studied niche partitioning between two sympatric wild canids in north-eastern Italy: the golden jackal and the red fox, which, based on competition theories, have a high potential for competition. We considered four main niche dimensions: space, habitat, time, and diet. RESULTS: We investigated three study areas monitoring target species populations from March 2017 to November 2018 using non-invasive monitoring techniques. Red fox presence was ascertained in every study area, while golden jackal presence was not ascertained in one study area, where we collected data regarding wolf presence. Considering the two target species, we observed partial diet partitioning based on prey size, with the golden jackal mainly feeding on wild ungulates and the red fox mainly feeding on small mammals. The two canids had an extensive temporal overlap along the diel cycle, having both predominant crepuscular and nocturnal activity patterns, but marked spatial partitioning and differential use of habitats. The golden jackal proved to be specialist concerning the habitat dimension, while the red fox resulted completely generalist: the former selected less human-modified habitats and avoided intensively cultivated lands, while the latter was present in all habitats, including intensively cultivated lands. CONCLUSIONS: The observed partitioning might be due partially to some ecological adaptations (e.g. specialist vs. generalist use of resources) and specific behaviours (e.g. cooperative vs. solitary hunting) and partially to the avoidance response of the red fox aimed at reducing the probability of direct encounters with the golden jackal.

Combining ensemble models and connectivity analyses to predict wolf expected dispersal routes through a lowland corridor.

The Italian wolf (Canis lupus italicus) population has remained isolated South of the Alps for the last few thousand years. After a strong decline, the species has recolonized the Apennines and the Western Alps, while it is currently struggling to colonize the Eastern Alps. Recently, the species was detected in a lowland park connecting the Northern Apennines to the Central Alps. If the park was able to sustain a net wolf dispersal flow, this could significantly boost the connection with the Eastern Alps and the Dinaric-Balkan population. We investigated the suitability of the park as a functional ecological corridor for the wolf through the unhospitable lowland of Northern Italy. We collected wolf occurrence data in two study areas. We modeled species distribution running a separate ensemble model for each study area and then merging the output of the models to obtain an integrated suitability map. We used this map to identify corridors for the wolf adopting a factorial least-cost path and a cumulative resistant kernel approach. The connectivity models showed that only two corridors exist in the lowland areas between the Northern Apennines and the Central Alps. The Western corridor is a blind route, while the eastern corridor passes through the park and has a continuous course. However, the models also revealed a scarce resilience of corridor connectivity in the passageways between the park and the Apennines and the Prealps, which suggests that urgent management actions are necessary to ensure the future functionality of this important corridor.

Species specialization limits movement ability and shapes ecological networks: the case study of 2 forest mammals.

To counteract the negative effects of forest fragmentation on wildlife, it is crucial to maintain functional ecological networks. We identified the ecological networks for 2 mammals with very different degrees of forest specialization, the European badger Meles meles and the Roe deer Capreolus capreolus, by differentiating 4 agroforestry elements as either nodes or connectivity elements, and by defining the distance that provides the functional connectivity between fragments. Species occurrence data were collected in a wide agroecosystem in northern Italy. To test the role of hedgerows, traditional poplar cultivations, short rotation coppices, and reforestations as ecological network elements for the 2 species we applied the method of simulated species perceptions of the landscape (SSPL), comparing the ability of different SSPLs to explain the observed species distribution. All analyses were repeated considering different scenarios of species movement ability through the matrix. Model outputs seem to show that the specialist and highly mobile Roe deer has the same movement ability throughout the matrix (2 km) as the European badger, a smaller, but generalist species. The ecological network identified for the European badger was widespread throughout the area and was composed of woodlands, poplar cultivations and hedgerows as nodes and short rotation coppices as connectivity elements. Conversely, the ecological network of the Roe deer was mostly limited to the main forest areas and was composed of woodlands, poplar cultivations and reforestations as nodes and short rotation coppices and hedgerows as connectivity elements. The degree of forest specialization strongly affects both species perception of habitat and movement ability throughout the matrix, regardless of species size. This has important implications for species conservation.

Wolf predation on wild ungulates: how slope and habitat cover influence the localization of kill sites.

Based on data collected along the Ligurian Apennines and Alps (N-W Italy), we analysed the main environmental and human-related factors influencing the distribution of kill sites of the wolf Canis lupus. We mapped and digitized 62 kill sites collected during 2007-2016. Around each kill site, we defined a buffer corresponding to the potential hunting area of wolves. We compared kill site plots and an equal number of random plots. We formulated a model of kill site distribution following an approach presence versus availability by binary logistic regression analysis; we tested the hypothesis that wolf choice of kill sites is influenced by the physiography and the land use of the area. Among the preyed wild ungulates, we identified 23 roe deer Capreolus capreolus, 18 fallow deer Dama dama, 16 wild boars Sus scrofa, and 5 chamois Rupicapra rupicapra. Binary logistic regression analysis showed a negative effect of the road density, the urban areas, the mixed forests, and a positive effect of steep slopes and open habitats. Prey are more vulnerable to predators under certain conditions and predators are capable of selecting for these conditions. Wolves achieved this by selecting particular habitats in which to kill their prey: they preferred steep, open habitats far from human presence, where wild ungulates are more easily detectable and chasable.

Unexpected Echinococcus multilocularis infections in shepherd dogs and wolves in south-western Italian Alps: A new endemic area?

The European distribution of Echinococcus multilocularis has been reported to be expanding east and north, whereas its southern limits are deemed stable. During a study on Echinococcus granulosus s.l. infections in wolves and dogs in the Italian Maritime Alps, we unexpectedly detected the presence of E. multilocularis eggs in four fecal samples from at least two shepherd dogs, and in five wolf fecal samples. This finding, in an area about 130 km south of the southernmost E. multilocularis report in the Alps, may suggest a rapid expansion southward. While infections in foxes are currently being investigated, these data seem to indicate the potential for a new E. multilocularis endemic area. If this will be confirmed, the implementation of surveillance programs in wild and domestic canids and preventative measures will become a priority.

Factors influencing wild boar damage to agricultural crops in Sardinia (Italy).

Crop damage by wildlife is a frequent source of human-wildlife conflict. Understanding which factors increase the risk of damage is crucial to the development of effective management strategies. The aims of this study were to provide a general description of agricultural damage caused by wild boar Sus scrofa meridionalis over a 7-year period in North-eastern Sardinia (Mediterranean Italy), and to formulate a predictive model of damage risk. We recorded a total of 221 cases of wild boar damage, with economic losses amounting to 483,982 Euros. Damage events mostly involved vineyards, meadows and oat fields, and were characterized by a peak incidence in summer and early autumn, and a minimum in spring. Damaged fields were characterized by an increasing presence of permanent crops, a decreasing presence of woodlands, maquis and urban areas, and a reduced distance from shelter areas (forests and shrublands). The analysis of spatiotemporal variation of boar-induced damage and the identification of factors that augment the risk of damage provides essential information for contributing to the development of a more effective plan for managing wild boar populations.

The Importance of Rotational Crops for Biodiversity Conservation in Mediterranean Areas.

Nowadays we are seeing the largest biodiversity loss since the extinction of the dinosaurs. To conserve biodiversity it is essential to plan protected areas using a prioritization approach, which takes into account the current biodiversity value of the sites. Considering that in the Mediterranean Basin the agro-ecosystems are one of the most important parts of the landscape, the conservation of crops is essential to biodiversity conservation. In the framework of agro-ecosystem conservation, farmland birds play an important role because of their representativeness, and because of their steady decline in the last Century in Western Europe. The main aim of this research was to define if crop dominated landscapes could be useful for biodiversity conservation in a Mediterranean area in which the landscape was modified by humans in the last thousand years and was affected by the important biogeographical phenomenon of peninsula effect. To assess this, we identify the hotspots and the coldspots of bird diversity in southern Italy both during the winter and in the breeding season. In particular we used a scoring method, defining a biodiversity value for each cell of a 1-km grid superimposed on the study area, using data collected by fieldwork following a stratified random sampling design. This value was analysed by a multiple linear regression analysis and was predicted in the whole study area. Then we defined the hotspots and the coldspots of the study area as 15% of the cells with higher and lower value of biodiversity, respectively. Finally, we used GAP analysis to compare hotspot distribution with the current network of protected areas. This study showed that the winter hotspots of bird diversity were associated with marshes and water bodies, shrublands, and irrigated crops, whilst the breeding hotspots were associated with more natural areas (e.g. transitional wood/shrubs), such as open areas (natural grasslands, pastures and not irrigated crops). Moreover, the results underlined the negative effects of permanent crops, such as vineyards, olive groves, and orchards, in particular during the winter season. This research highlights the importance of farmland areas mainly for wintering species and the importance of open areas for breeding species in the Mediterranean Basin. This may be true even when the species' spatial distribution could be affected by biogeography. An important result showed that the hotspots for breeding species cannot be used as a surrogate for the wintering species, which were often not considered in the planning of protected areas.