National Data and the Applicability to Understanding Rural and Remote Substance Use.

Responding to increases in overdose, addiction, and substance misuse, local public health experts need accurate data to plan and implement evidence-based prevention and treatment programs. In many countries, national data are the tool most readily available for these efforts. In the United States, the National Study on Drug Use and Health and the Treatment Episode Data Set are data sources used by states to determine the extent of addiction. This project sought to determine if these national data sources are applicable for local use in addiction prevention and program planning. NSDUH prevalence estimates from 2015 to 2019 were applied to the state population to determine the number of persons estimated to be substance users. The prevalence estimates were compared over time with the population data and substance use treatment admissions to assess the covariance and population change as an indicator of efficacy. The primary drivers of fatal overdose in Alaska are fentanyl, heroin, and methamphetamine. Fentanyl use was not assessed in either dataset. When applying the estimated use prevalence to the population, heroin users varied annually by 1777 persons and methamphetamine varied up to 2143 persons. These observed variances did not correspond with state population changes nor any trend in the persons seeking treatment for these substances. Our analyses do not support the use of NSDUH data for planning in rural and remote areas. The methods used in NSDUH data collection exclude ~ 20% of the state population, mostly Native persons, based on location and language. The annual prevalence estimates applied to the population did not correspond with changes in population nor changes in treatment. Fentanyl, which causes the most overdoses in Alaska and is of primary concern locally, was not assessed.

Hair drug testing of children suspected of exposure to the manufacture of methamphetamine.

INTRODUCTION: This study compares hair color and age in children tested for methamphetamine by hair analysis due to suspicion of exposure to the manufacture of methamphetamine by their caregivers. METHODS: A retrospective analysis evaluated differences in hair drug testing results of 107 children less than 12 years of age tested due to clinical suspicion of having been exposed to the manufacture of methamphetamine. Results (confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy) were compared for differences in likelihood of testing positive in relation to the subject's age and having light or dark colored hair and reported with crude and adjusted odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: Of 107 children, 103 had a sufficient hair specimen for analysis. A third (36%) of the study population was less than 3 years of age. Almost half (45%) of the children tested positive for methamphetamine. 15% of the total study population tested positive for methamphetamine in combination with amphetamine indicating some degree of systemic exposure. No children were positive for amphetamine without also being positive for methamphetamine. Children less than 3 years of age were more likely to test positive. Positive hair drug tests for the combination of methamphetamine and amphetamine occurred in children with both light and dark colored hair. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Children living in homes where methamphetamine is being manufactured can have drug identified in their hair regardless of hair color. This testing can aid in illuminating the child's presence in an at-risk environment and a family in need of services.

Metal-activated C-peptide facilitates glucose clearance and the release of a nitric oxide stimulus via the GLUT1 transporter.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Proinsulin C-peptide has been implicated in reducing complications associated with diabetes and also in improving blood flow. We hypothesised that incubation of erythrocytes with C-peptide would improve the ability of these cells to release ATP, a stimulus for nitric oxide production. METHODS: Erythrocytes obtained from rabbits (n = 11) and both healthy and type 2 diabetic humans (n = 7) were incubated with C-peptide in the absence and presence of Fe2+ and Cr3+, and the resulting ATP release was measured via chemiluminescence. This release was also measured in the presence and absence of phloretin, an inhibitor of GLUT1, and also of mannose, a glycolysis inhibitor. To determine glucose transport, 14C-labelled glucose was added to erythrocytes in the presence and absence of the C-peptide-metal complex and the aforementioned inhibitors. RESULTS: The release of ATP from the erythrocytes of patients with diabetes increased from 64 +/- 13 to 260 +/- 39 nmol/l upon incubation of the cells in C-peptide. The C-peptide activity was dependent upon binding to Fe2+, which was extended upon binding to Cr3+. The increase in ATP release from the erythrocytes is due to metal-activated C-peptide stimulation of glucose transfer into the erythrocytes via the GLUT1 transporter. In the presence of C-peptide complexed to Cr3+, the amount of glucose transferred into the erythrocyte increased by 31%. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: When complexed to Fe2+ or Cr3+, C-peptide has the ability to promote ATP release from erythrocytes. This release is due to an increase in glucose transport through GLUT1.

Artificial evolution of the morphology and kinematics in a flapping-wing mini-UAV.

Birds demonstrate that flapping-wing flight (FWF) is a versatile flight mode, compatible with hovering, forward flight and gliding to save energy. This extended flight domain would be especially useful on mini-UAVs. However, design is challenging because aerodynamic efficiency is conditioned by complex movements of the wings, and because many interactions exist between morphological (wing area, aspect ratio) and kinematic parameters (flapping frequency, stroke amplitude, wing unfolding). Here we used artificial evolution to optimize these morpho-kinematic features on a simulated 1 kg UAV, equipped with wings articulated at the shoulder and wrist. Flight tests were conducted in a dedicated steady aerodynamics simulator. Parameters generating horizontal flight for minimal mechanical power were retained. Results showed that flight at medium speed (10-12 m s(-1)) can be obtained for reasonable mechanical power (20 W kg(-1)), while flight at higher speed (16-20 m s(-1)) implied increased power (30-50 W kg(-1)). Flight at low speed (6-8 m s(-1)) necessitated unrealistic power levels (70-500 W kg(-1)), probably because our simulator neglected unsteady aerodynamics. The underlying adaptation of morphology and kinematics to varying flight speed were compared to available biological data on the flight of birds.

Behavioural responses of dairy cattle to the stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans, in an open field environment.

Individual cows (25 in each of four herds) were monitored 8-10 times weekly for 12 weeks (stable fly season) on a southern California dairy, with 100 observations per cow. The numbers of biting stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) on the front legs and the frequencies of four fly-repelling behaviours per 2-min observation period [head throws, front leg stamps, skin twitches (panniculus reflex) and tail flicks] were recorded. Fly numbers varied, peaking at 3.0-3.5 flies per leg in week 9 (late May). Weekly herd mean frequencies of fly-repelling behaviours were highly dependent on fly numbers, with a linear regression r(2) > 0.8. Head throws and stamps were less frequent than skin twitches and tail flicks. Individual cows differed in numbers of stable flies and behaviours. Behaviours were correlated with flies for individual cows, but at a lower level than were herd means (r = 0.3-0.7). Cows that stamped more within a herd tended to have lower fly counts; other fly-repelling behaviours were less effective. Cows maintained ranks within a herd with regard to fly numbers (r = 0.47), head throws (0.48), leg stamps (0.64), skin twitches (0.69) and tail flicks (0.64). Older cows tended to harbour higher fly numbers and to stamp less relative to younger adult cows. Ratios of leg stamps and head throws to fly numbers dropped significantly through time, suggesting habituation to pain associated with fly biting. Tail flicks were not effective for repelling Stomoxys, but were easiest to quantify and may help in monitoring pest intensity. At this low-moderate fly pressure, no consistent impacts on milk yield were detected, but methods incorporating cow behaviour are recommended for future studies of economic impact.

Intravaginal progesterone insert to synchronize return to estrus of previously inseminated dairy cows.

An intravaginal progesterone insert (CIDR insert; 1.38 g of progesterone) was evaluated for synchronization of returns to estrus (SR), conception rate (CR), and pregnancy rate (PR) in dairy cows previously artificially inseminated (AI). Healthy, nonpregnant, lactating Holstein cows, > or = 40 and < or = 150 d postpartum at eight commercial farms were used. Cows detected in estrus and receiving AI 2, 3, or 4 d after one injection of PGF2alpha (25 mg) were assigned as either controls (n = 945), or to receive a CIDR insert (n = 948) for 7 d (14 to 21 +/- 1 d after AI). Cows were observed for returns to estrus from 18 to 26 +/- 1 d after initial AI (resynchrony period) and were reinseminated if in estrus. Vaginal mucus on CIDR inserts (97.3% retention) at removal was scored: 1 = no mucus; 2 = clear; 3 = cloudy; 4 = yellow; and 5 = red or brown. Percentage of cows in estrus (SR) during the 3 d after CIDR insert removal was contrasted to the highest 3-d cumulative percentage in estrus for controls. Cows conceiving to initial AI were omitted in calculations of SR, CR, and PR during resynchrony. Mucous scores of 3 or 4 (mild irritation) were observed in 65% of cows and a score of 5 (more severe irritation) was observed in 2%; otherwise, health was unaffected. The PR to initial AI was lower for cows subsequently receiving CIDR inserts than for controls (32.7 vs. 36.7%). The CIDR insert increased SR (34.1 vs. 19.3% in 3 d) and overall estrus detection (43% in 4 d vs. 36% in 9 d) compared with controls. For the 9-d resynchrony period, CR and PR for CIDR-treated (26.7, 12.2%) and control (30.9, 11.1%) cows did not differ significantly. The CIDR inserts improved synchrony of returns to estrus, slightly reduced PR to initial AI, but did not affect CR or PR to AI during the resynchrony period.

A federal tax credit to encourage employers to offer health coverage.

Many firms that employ low-wage workers cannot afford to offer an employee health plan, and many of the uninsured work for such firms. This article makes the case for an employer tax credit, administered by the Internal Revenue Service, as a way to extend health coverage to uninsured workers and their families. The permanent, fixed-dollar, refundable credit would be available to all low-wage employers (those with average wages of $10 per hour and less), including those already offering coverage. The credit would be graduated depending on average wage: the maximum credit would equal 50% of the cost of a standard benefit package; the minimum would equal 30% of the package. It also would vary by family size and could be used to cover part-time and temporary workers. Participating employers would be required to pay at least 50% of the health insurance premium, proof of which would be shown on firms' tax returns. The paper provides justification for this approach. It closes with a discussion of strengths and weaknesses of this approach and alternative design features.

HLA-B*4012: a new allele with unique serological features.

We have defined the new allele HLA-B*4012, which had been isolated from a black individual. It was initially recognized as a serologically unique allele when typing her father for renal transplantation. The HLA class I phenotype was A*0201,*6602; B*4001,*4012; Bw6; Cw*0304,*1505. Sequencing from exon 1 through intron 3 of B*4012 was performed. B*4012 is identical to B*4001 and B*4010 in exon 3, and in the 3' part of exon 2, but it is unique in that exon 1 and the 5' part of exon 2 are identical to B*1503, B*1509, B*1510, B*1518, B*1523, and B*1529. The generation of this allele is best explained by a recombination event in exon 2 (break point between nucleotides 205 and 222 from the beginning of the coding region) of B*4001 or B*4010 with one of these B*15 variants as a donor allele. Its unique serological feature (B48, B60, B70, and B72 reactivity) is consistent with the sequence data of its donor alleles.

Animat navigation using a cognitive graph.

This article describes a computational model of the hippocampus that makes it possible for a simulated rat to navigate in a continuous environment containing obstacles. This model views the hippocampus as a "cognitive graph", that is, a hetero-associative network that learns temporal sequences of visited places and stores a topological representation of the environment. Calling upon place cells, head direction cells, and "goal cells", it suggests a biologically plausible way of exploiting such a spatial representation for navigation that does not require complicated graph-search algorithms. Moreover, it permits "latent learning" during exploration, that is, the building of a spatial representation without the need of any reinforcement. When the rat occasionally discovers some rewarding place it may wish to rejoin subsequently, it simply records within its cognitive graph, through a series of goal and sub-goal cells, the direction in which to move from any given start place. Accordingly, the model implements a simple "place-recognition-triggered response" navigation strategy. Two implementations of place cell management are studied in parallel. The first one associates place cells with place fields that are given a priori and that are uniformly distributed in the environment. The second one dynamically recruits place cells as exploration proceeds and adjusts the density of such cells to the local complexity of the environment. Both implementations lead to identical results. The article ends with a few predictions about results to be expected in experiments involving simultaneous recordings of multiple cells in the rat hippocampus.

Presence-absence sequential sampling plan for northern fowl mite, Ornithonyssus sylviarum (Acari: Macronyssidae), on caged-layer hens.

Caged-layer hens were scored as infested or uninfested by visual examination of the vent region, and the number of northern fowl mite, Ornithonyssus sylviarum (Canestrini & Fanzago), per hen was estimated. The proportion infested and average number of mites per hen were shown to have a highly significant, positive relationship (r = 0.936). Sampling among houses within a flock, and rows and sections within houses were analyzed to determine the reliability of sampling a representative portion of a flock. Low- and moderate-tolerance treatment thresholds, based on percentage of hens infested with mites, were developed from sampling 1 wk before and 1 wk after acaricide treatments determined necessary by the producer. These thresholds were used to compare a fixed (single) sampling plan, a curtailed procedure of the fixed sampling plan, and a sequential sampling plan based on a sequential probability ratio test, by sampling 174 hens (the maximum number needed for the single sampling plan). The sequential sampling plan required fewer hen examinations on average to reach a treatment decision than did the other plans, depending on the infestation tolerance limits. Using a low tolerance approach in which infestations below 15% are considered noneconomic (safe threshold) and infestations above 25% are considered economically important (action threshold), as few as 5 hens required examination to reach a treatment decision. Sequential sampling plan graphs are presented for 2 tolerance threshold scenarios (a 15% safe-threshold paired with a 25% action threshold and a 35% safe-threshold paired with a 45% action threshold). These sequential sampling plans using presence absence assessments should greatly facilitate monitoring and treatment decisions for this important pest.

Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in a breeding colony of African clawed frogs (Xenopus tropicalis).

More than 90% of a breeding colony of clawed frogs (Xenopus tropicalis) imported to the United States from western Africa died in an epizootic of chlamydiosis. Chlamydial inclusions were observed by light and electron microscopy in the liver of an infected frog. Chlamydia pneumoniae was isolated in cell cultures from four frogs. A cutaneous infection by a chytridiomycete fungus observed in two frogs could have been a cofactor in the die-off.ous Diseases

Biocatalytic sulfur removal from fuels: applicability for producing low sulfur gasoline.

Environmental regulations are driving R&D efforts to produce low sulfur fuels, including diesel fuel and gasoline for motor vehicles. Biocatalytic sulfur removal from fuels has potential applicability for producing low sulfur gasoline. Microbial biocatalysts have been identified that can biotransform sulfur compounds found in fuels, including ones that selectively remove sulfur from dibenzothiophene heterocyclic compounds. Most attention is give to the 4S pathway of Rhodococcus, which can remove sulfur from substituted and unsubstituted dibenzothiophenes, including sulfur compounds that hinder chemical catalysis and that resist removal by mild hydrotreatment. Various bioreactor and bioprocess designs are being tested for use with biocatalysts, including recombinant biocatalysts, for use in removing sulfur from fuels and feedstocks within the petroleum refinery stream. With bioprocess improvements that enhance biocatalyst stability, achieve faster kinetics, improve mass transfer limitations, temperature and solvent tolerance, as well as broaden substrate specificity to attack a greater range of heterocyclic compounds, biocatalysis may be a cost-effective approach to achieve the production of low sulfur gasoline. The challenge will be to accomplish these improvements by the time the regulations for low sulfur gasoline and other vehicle fuels go into effect in order to be competitive with emerging nonbiological desulfurization technologies.

Evolution and development of neural controllers for locomotion, gradient-following, and obstacle-avoidance in artificial insects.

This paper describes how the SGOCE paradigm has been used to evolve developmental programs capable of generating recurrent neural networks that control the behavior of simulated insects. This paradigm is characterized by an encoding scheme, by an evolutionary algorithm, by syntactic constraints, and by an incremental strategy that are described in turn. The additional use of an insect model equipped with six legs and two antennae made it possible to generate control modules that allowed it to successively add gradient-following and obstacle-avoidance capacities to walking behavior. The advantages of this evolutionary approach, together with directions for future work, are discussed.

Biologically based artificial navigation systems: review and prospects.

Diverse theories of animal navigation aim at explaining how to determine and maintain a course from one place to another in the environment, although each presents a particular perspective with its own terminologies. These vocabularies sometimes overlap, but unfortunately with different meanings. This paper attempts to define precisely the existing concepts and terminologies, so as to describe comprehensively the different theories and models within the same unifying framework. We present navigation strategies within a four-level hierarchical framework based upon levels of complexity of required processing (Guidance, Place recognition-triggered Response, Topological navigation, Metric navigation). This classification is based upon what information is perceived, represented and processed. It contrasts with common distinctions based upon the availability of certain sensors or cues and rather stresses the information structure and content of central processors. We then review computational models of animal navigation, i.e. of animats. These are introduced along with the underlying conceptual basis in biological data drawn from behavioral and physiological experiments, with emphasis on theories of "spatial cognitive maps". The goal is to aid in deriving algorithms based upon insights into these processes, algorithms that can be useful both for psychobiologists and roboticists. The main observation is, however, that despite the fact that all reviewed models claim to have biological inspiration and that some of them explicitly use "Cognitive Map"-like mechanisms, they correspond to different levels of our proposed hierarchy and that none of them exhibits the main capabilities of real "Cognitive Maps"--in Tolman's sense--that is, a robust capacity for detour and shortcut behaviors.