ABSTRACT
Although the role of cytochrome c in apoptosis is well established, details of its participation in signaling pathways in vivo are not completely understood. The knockout for the somatic isoform of cytochrome c caused embryonic lethality in mice, but derived embryonic fibroblasts were shown to be resistant to apoptosis induced by agents known to trigger the intrinsic apoptotic pathway. In contrast, these cells were reported to be hypersensitive to tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha)-induced apoptosis, which signals through the extrinsic pathway. Surprisingly, we found that this cell line (CRL 2613) respired at close to normal levels because of an aberrant activation of a testis isoform of cytochrome c, which, albeit expressed at low levels, was able to replace the somatic isoform for respiration and apoptosis. To produce a bona fide cytochrome c knockout, we developed a mouse knockout for both the testis and somatic isoforms of cytochrome c. The mouse was made viable by the introduction of a ubiquitously expressed cytochrome c transgene flanked by loxP sites. Lung fibroblasts in which the transgene was deleted showed no cytochrome c expression, no respiration, and resistance to agents that activate the intrinsic and to a lesser but significant extent also the extrinsic pathways. Comparison of these cells with lines with a defective oxidative phosphorylation system showed that cells with defective respiration have increased sensitivity to TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis, but this process was still amplified by cytochrome c. These studies underscore the importance of oxidative phosphorylation and apoptosome function to both the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways.
Subject(s)
Apoptosis/drug effects , Cytochromes c/metabolism , Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/pharmacology , Alleles , Animals , Cell Line , Cell Respiration , Cytochromes c/genetics , Fibroblasts/metabolism , Immunohistochemistry , Mice , Mice, Transgenic , Mitochondria/drug effects , Oxidative Phosphorylation/drug effects , Oxygen Consumption/drug effects , Polarography , Transfection , Transgenes , Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/geneticsABSTRACT
The antiviral compound azidothymidine (AZT), alone or in combination with other agents, induces apoptosis in early-passage, Epstein-Barr virus-positive Burkitt lymphoma (EBV+ BL) lines and has clinical activity in EBV+ BL. We report here a mechanism of AZT's antitumor activity. The nuclei of these cells contain activated nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) subunits p50, c-Rel, RelB, and p52, but not p65. Treatment of primary EBV+ BL lines with AZT inhibited NF-kappaB within 1 to 2 hours. This was followed by up-regulation of EBV gene expression including viral thymidine kinase (vTK) and apoptosis. Subclones of EBV+ BL cells that demonstrated activated p65 were resistant to AZT. In EBV+ BLs, AZT but not ganciclovir (GCV) was highly phosphorylated to its monophosphate form (AZT-MP). Phosphorylation, as well as apoptosis, was markedly enhanced in the presence of hydroxyurea. AZT inhibits NF-kappaB and up-regulates EBV gene expression in primary EBV+ BLs. AZT with hydroxyurea may represent an inexpensive, targeted regimen for endemic BL.
Subject(s)
Burkitt Lymphoma/drug therapy , Epstein-Barr Virus Infections/drug therapy , Herpesvirus 4, Human/genetics , Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/pharmacology , Zidovudine/pharmacology , Apoptosis/drug effects , Burkitt Lymphoma/virology , Epstein-Barr Virus Infections/complications , Gene Expression Profiling , Gene Expression Regulation, Viral/drug effects , Genome, Viral , Humans , Hydroxyurea/pharmacology , NF-kappa B/antagonists & inhibitors , NF-kappa B/metabolism , Phosphorylation , Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors/metabolism , Transcription Factor RelA , Tumor Cells, Cultured , Zidovudine/metabolismABSTRACT
The survival of viral mediated lymphomas depends upon constitutive nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) activity. AIDS-related human herpesvirus type 8-associated primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) responds poorly to chemotherapy and is almost invariably fatal. We have previously demonstrated that the antiviral combination of interferon alpha (IFN-alpha) and azidothymidine (AZT) induces apoptosis in PEL cell lines. We therefore used these agents as therapy for an AIDS patient with PEL. The patient had a dramatic response, with complete resolution of his malignant effusion in 5 days. In PEL cells, the death receptor ligand known as tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is markedly up-regulated by IFN-alpha; however, signals transduced by death receptors may also activate an antiapoptotic response mediated by NF-kappaB. In both the primary tumor cells from our patient and PEL cell lines, AZT selectively blocked nuclear entry of the NF-kappaB heterodimer p50 and p65, an effect not seen with other nonthymidine antiviral nucleosides. AZT monophosphate, the principal intracellular metabolite, inhibited phosphorylation and degradation of IkappaB by the IkappaB kinase complex. AZT- and IFN-alpha-mediated apoptosis was blocked by expression and nuclear localization of an IkappaB-resistant form of NF-kappaB (the p50 subunit linked to the transactivation domain of herpes simplex virus VP16). The proapoptotic effect of AZT and IFN-alpha in PEL occurs through the concomitant activation of TRAIL and blockade of NF-kappaB and represents a novel antiviral therapy for a virally mediated tumor.
