Formation of bare UO2(2+) and NUO(+) by fragmentation of gas-phase uranyl-acetonitrile complexes.

In a prior study [Van Stipdonk; et al. J. Phys. Chem. A 2006, 110, 959-970], electrospray ionization (ESI) was used to generate doubly charged complex ions composed of the uranyl ion and acetonitrile (acn) ligands. The complexes, general formula [UO2(acn)n](2+), n = 0-5, were isolated in an 3-D quadrupole ion-trap mass spectrometer to probe intrinsic reactions with H2O. Two general reaction pathways were observed: (a) the direct addition of one or more H2O ligands to the doubly charged complexes and (b) charge-exchange reactions. For the former, the intrinsic tendency to add H2O was dependent on the number and type of nitrile ligand. For the latter, charge exchange involved primarily the formation of uranyl hydroxide, [UO2OH](+), presumably via a collision with gas-phase H2O and the elimination of a protonated nitrile ligand. Examination of general ion fragmentation patterns by collision-induced dissociation, however, was hindered by the pronounced tendency to generate hydrated species. In an update to this story, we have revisited the fragmentation of uranyl-acetonitrile complexes in a linear ion-trap (LIT) mass spectrometer. Lower partial pressures of adventitious H2O in the LIT (compared to the 3-D ion trap used in our previous study) minimized adduct formation and allowed access to lower uranyl coordination numbers than previously possible. We have now been able to investigate the fragmentation behavior of these complex ions completely, with a focus on tendency to undergo ligand elimination versus charge reduction reactions. CID can be used to drive ligand elimination to completion to furnish the bare uranyl dication, UO2(2+). In addition, fragmentation of [UO2(acn)](2+) generated [UO2(NC)](+), which subsequently fragmented to furnish NUO(+). Formation of the nitrido by transfer of N from cyanide was confirmed using precursors labeled with (15)N. The observed formation of [UO2(NC)](+) and NUO(+) was modeled by density functional theory.

Dissociation of gas-phase bimetallic clusters as a probe of charge densities: the effective charge of uranyl.

Complementary experimental and computational methods for evaluating relative charge densities of metal cations in gas-phase clusters are presented. Collision-induced dissociation (CID) and/or density functional theory computations were performed on anion clusters of composition MM'A(m+n+1)(-), where the two metal ions have formal charge states M(m+) and M'(n+) and A is an anion, NO3(-), Cl(-), or F(-) in this work. Results for alkaline earth and lanthanide metal ions reveal that cluster CID generally preferentially produces MA(m+1)(-) and neutral M'An if the surface charge density of M is greater than that of M': the metal ion with the higher charge density takes the extra anion. Computed dissociation energies corroborate that dissociation occurs via the lowest energy process. CID of clusters in which one of the two metal ions is uranyl, UO2(2+), shows that the effective charge density of U in uranyl is greater than that of alkaline earths and comparable to that of the late trivalent lanthanides; this is in accord with previous solution results for uranyl, from which an effective charge of 3.2+ was derived.

Activation of gas-phase uranyl: from an oxo to a nitrido complex.

The uranyl moiety, UO2(2+), is ubiquitous in the chemistry of uranium, the most prevalent actinide. Replacing the strong uranium-oxygen bonds in uranyl with other ligands is very challenging, having met with only limited success. We report here uranyl oxo bond activation in the gas phase to form a terminal nitrido complex, a previously elusive transformation. Collision induced dissociation of gas-phase UO2(NCO)Cl2(-) in an ion trap produced the nitrido oxo complex, NUOCl2(-), and CO2. NUOCl2(-) was computed by DFT to have Cs symmetry and a singlet ground state. The computed bond length and order indicate a triple U-N bond. Endothermic activation of UO2(NCO)Cl2(-) to produce NUOCl2(-) and neutral CO2 was computed to be thermodynamically more favorable than NCO ligand loss. Complete reaction pathways for the CO2 elimination process were computed at the DFT level.

Synthesis and properties of uranium sulfide cations. An evaluation of the stability of thiouranyl, {S═U═S}2+.

Atomic uranium cations, U(+) and U(2+), reacted with the facile sulfur-atom donor OCS to produce several monopositive and dipositive uranium sulfide species containing up to four sulfur atoms. Sequential abstraction of two sulfur atoms by U(2+) resulted in US2(2+); density functional theory computations indicate that the ground-state structure for this species is side-on η(2)-S2 triangular US2(2+), with the linear thiouranyl isomer, {S═U(VI)═S}(2+), some 171 kJ mol(-1) higher in energy. The result that the linear thiouranyl structure is a local minimum at a moderate energy suggests that it should be feasible to stabilize this moiety in molecular compounds.

Proton transfer in Th(IV) hydrate clusters: a link to hydrolysis of Th(OH)(2)(2+) to Th(OH)(3)(+) in aqueous solution.

Gas-phase reactions of thorium hydroxide cations with water were studied in an ion trap and by density functional theory. The Th(OH)(2)(2+) ion adds five inner-shell water molecules. Addition of outer-shell water molecules to produce the Th(OH)(2)(2+)·(H(2)O)(6-8) yields Th(OH)(3)(+)·(H(2)O)(0-3) by intracluster proton transfer and elimination of a protonated water cluster, (H(3)O)(+)(H(2)O)(2). Facile hydrolysis of Th(IV) in these small hydrate clusters correlates with solution hydrolysis of Th(OH)(2)(2+)(aq) to Th(OH)(3)(+)(aq). The Th(OH)(3)(+) ion adds up to three inner-shell water molecules. For the other studied Th(IV) singly charged ions, ThO(OH)(+) exothermically hydrolyzes directly to Th(OH)(3)(+) by addition of a water molecule, ThO(O(2))(+) hydrolyzes to Th(OH)(3)(+) via nonthermalized Th(OH)(2)(O(2))(+), and Th(OH)(2)(O(2))(+) hydrolyzes to Th(OH)(3)(+)·(H(2)O) by a sequence that requires exothermic hydration prior to hydrolysis. Computed structures and energetics are in accord with the experimental observations.

Gas-phase reaction studies of dipositive hafnium and hafnium oxide ions: generation of the peroxide HfO2(2+).

Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry was used to characterize the gas-phase reactivity of Hf dipositive ions, Hf(2+)and HfO(2+), toward several oxidants: thermodynamically facile O-atom donor N(2)O, ineffective donor CO, and intermediate donors O(2), CO(2), NO, and CH(2)O. The Hf(2+) ion exhibited electron transfer with N(2)O, O(2), NO, and CH(2)O, reflecting the high ionization energy of Hf(+). The HfO(2+) ion was produced by O-atom transfer to Hf(2+) from N(2)O, O(2), and CO(2), and the HfO(2)(2+) ion by O-atom transfer to HfO(2+) from N(2)O; these reactions were fairly efficient. Density functional theory revealed the structure of HfO(2)(2+) as a peroxide. The HfO(2)(2+) ion reacted by electron transfer with N(2)O, CO(2), and CO to give HfO(2)(+). Estimates were made for the second ionization energies of Hf (14.5 ± 0.5 eV), HfO (14.3 ± 0.5 eV), and HfO(2) (16.2 ± 0.5 eV), and also for the bond dissociation energies, D[Hf(2+)-O] = 686 ± 69 kJ mol(-1) and D[OHf(2+)-O] = 186 ± 98 kJ mol(-1). The computed bond dissociation energies, 751 and 270 kJ mol(-1), respectively, are within these experimental ranges. Additionally, it was found that HfO(2)(2+) oxidized CO to CO(2) and is thus a catalyst in the oxidation of CO by N(2)O and that Hf(2+) activates methane to produce a carbene, HfCH(2)(2+).

On the origins of faster oxo exchange for uranyl(V) versus plutonyl(V).

Activation of uranyl(V) oxo bonds in the gas phase is demonstrated by reaction of U(16)O(2)(+) with H(2)(18)O to produce U(16)O(18)O(+) and U(18)O(2)(+). In contrast, neptunyl(V) and plutonyl(V) are comparatively inert toward exchange. Computed potential energy profiles (PEPs) reveal a lower yl oxo exchange transition state for uranyl(V)/water as compared with neptunyl(V)/water and plutonyl(V)/water. A correspondence between oxo exchange rates in gas phase and acid solutions is apparent; the contrasting oxo exchange rates of UO(2)(+) and PuO(2)(+) are considered in the context of covalent bonding in actinyls. Hydroxo exchange of U(16)O(2)((16)OH)(+) with H(2)(18)O to give U(16)O(2)((18)OH)(+) proceeded much faster than oxo exchange, in accord with a lower computed transition state for OH exchange. The PEP for the addition of H(2)O to UO(2)(+) suggests that both UO(2)(+)·(H(2)O) and UO(OH)(2)(+) should be considered as potential products.

Gas-phase oxidation reactions of Ta2+: synthesis and properties of TaO(2+) and TaO2(2+).

Gas-phase reactions of Ta(2+) and TaO(2+) with oxidants, including thermodynamically facile O-atom donor N(2)O and ineffective donor CO, as well as intermediate donors C(2)H(4)O (ethylene oxide), H(2)O, O(2), CO(2), NO, and CH(2)O, were studied by Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry. All oxidants reacted with Ta(2+) by electron transfer yielding Ta(+), in accord with the high second ionization energy of Ta (ca. 16 eV). TaO(2+) was also produced with N(2)O, H(2)O, O(2), and CO(2), oxidants with ionization energies above 12 eV; CO reacted only by electron transfer. The following charge separation products were also observed: TaN(+) and TaO(+) with N(2)O; and TaO(+) with O(2), CO(2), and CH(2)O. TaOH(2+), formed with H(2)O, reacted with a second H(2)O by proton transfer. TaO(2+) abstracted an electron from N(2)O, H(2)O, O(2), CO(2), and CO. Oxidation of TaO(2+) by N(2)O was also observed to produce TaO(2)(2+); on the basis of density functional theory (DFT) results, this species is a dioxide, {O-Ta-O}(2+). TaO(2)(2+) reacted by electron transfer with N(2)O, CO(2), and CO to give TaO(2)(+). Additionally, it was found that TaO(2)(2+) oxidizes CO to CO(2) and that it acts as a catalyst in the oxidation of CO by N(2)O. TaO(2)(2+) also activates H(2) to form TaO(2)H(2+). On the basis of the rates of electron transfer from N(2)O, CO(2), and CO to Ta(2+), TaO(2+), and TaO(2)(2+), the following estimates were made for the second ionization energies of Ta, TaO, and TaO(2): IE[Ta(+)] = 15.8 ± 0.3 eV, IE[TaO(+)] = 16.0 ± 0.5 eV, and IE[TaO(2)(+)] = 16.9 ± 0.4 eV. These IEs, together with recently reported bond dissociation energies, D[Ta(+)-O] and D[OTa(+)-O], result in the following bond energies: D[Ta(2+)-O] = 657 ± 58 kJ mol(-1) and D[OTa(2+)-O] = 500 ± 63 kJ mol(-1), the first of which is in good agreement with the value obtained by DFT.

Reduction of mercury(II) by the carbon dioxide radical anion: a theoretical and experimental investigation.

The laser flash photolysis technique (λ(exc) = 266 nm) was used to investigate the mechanism of the HgCl(2) reduction mediated by CO(2)(·-) radicals in the temperature range 291.7-308.0 K. For this purpose, the CO(2)(·-) radicals were generated by scavenging of sulfate radicals by formic acid. The absorbance of the reduced radical of methyl viologen, a competitive scavenger of CO(2)(·-), was monitored at 390 nm. Moreover, theoretical calculations, including solvent effects, were also performed within the framework of the density functional theory for various chemical species of Hg(I) and Hg(II) to aid in the modeling of the reaction of reduction of HgCl(2) by CO(2)(·-).

Gas-phase reactions of uranate ions, UO(2)(-), UO(3)(-), UO(4)(-), and UO(4)H(-), with methanol: a convergence of experiment and theory.

Bimolecular reactions of uranium oxide molecular anions with methanol have been studied experimentally, by Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry, and computationally, by density functional theory (DFT). The primary goals were to provide fundamental insights into mechanistic and structural details of model reactions of uranium oxides with organics, and to examine the validity of theoretical modeling of these types of reactions. The ions UO(3)(-), UO(4)(-), and UO(4)H(-) each reacted with methanol to give a singular product; the primary products each exhibited sequential reactions with two additional methanol molecules to again give singular products. The observed reactions were elimination of water, formaldehyde, or hydrogen, and in one case addition of a methanol molecule. The potential energy profiles were computed for each reaction, and isotopic labeling experiments were performed to probe the validity of the computed mechanisms and structures-in each case where the experiments could be compared with the theory there was concurrence, clearly establishing the efficacy of the employed DFT methodologies for these and related reaction systems. The DFT results were furthermore in accord with the surprisingly inert nature of UO(2)(-). The results provide a basis to understand mechanisms of key reactions of uranium oxides with organics, and a foundation to extend DFT methodologies to more complex actinide systems which are not amenable to such direct experimental studies.

Topological insights into the nature of the halogen-carbon bonds in dimethylhalonium ylides and their cations.

In this study the nature of the bonding in a series of dimethylhalonium ylides (fluoronium, chloronium, bromonium and iodonium) was analyzed by means of topological methodologies (AIM and ELF analysis), to document the changes in the nature of the C-X bonds (X = F, Cl, Br, I) upon the series. For the sake of comparison the same study was performed on the corresponding dimethylhalonium cations (XC 2H 6 (+)) and the XCH 3 series. The wave functions used for the topological analysis were obtained at B3LYP level using extended triple-zeta basis sets. The formation of the cationic XC 2H 6 (+) structures can be interpreted to arise from the interaction between the XCH 3 and CH 3 (+) moieties. The resultant structures can be explained in terms of the superposition of two electrostatically interacting and two dative mesomeric structures. The halogen-carbon bonds have all the characteristics of the charge-shift (CS) bonds. The analysis of the C-X bond in the XC 2H 5 series shows a progressive reinforcing of the CH 3X-CH 2 bond, from FC 2H 5 that can be considered as formed from two fragments, FCH 3 and CH 2, to IC 2H 5, in which the CH 3I-CH 2 bond has all the features of a multiple bond involving atoms bearing lone pairs. Particularly interesting is BrC 2H 5, in which a special type of bond (hybrid covalent-dative double bond) has been characterized. The energetic stability of the XC 2H 5 structures with respect to the dissociation into the XCH 2 + CH 3 and XCH 3 + CH 2 ground-state fragments was studied in detail.

Topological analysis of the reaction of uranium ions (U+, U2+) with N2O in the gas phase.

Density functional theory calculations were performed to study the ability of uranium cations, U(+) and U(2+), to activate the N-N and N-O bonds of N(2)O. A close description of the reaction pathways leading to different reaction products is presented. The obtained results are compared with previous experimental works. The nature of the bonding of all the involved species and the bonding evolution along the reaction pathways was studied by means of the topological analysis of the ELF function.

Mechanistic aspects of the reaction of Th+ and Th2+ with water in the gas phase.

Density functional theory calculations were performed to study the gas-phase reaction of Th(+) and Th(2+) with water. An in-depth analysis of the reaction pathways leading to different reaction products is presented. The obtained results are compared to experimental data and to the previously studied reactions of U cations with water.

Theoretical and experimental investigation on the oxidation of gallic acid by sulfate radical anions.

By monitoring the decay of SO4*- after flash photolysis of aqueous solutions of S2O82- at different pH values, the kinetics of the reaction of SO4*- radicals with gallic acid and the gallate ion was investigated. The bimolecular rate constants for the reactions of the sulfate radicals with gallic acid and the gallate ion were found to be (6.3 +/- 0.7) x 10(8) and (2.9 +/- 0.2) x 10(9) M(-1) s(-1), respectively. On the basis of the oxygen-independent second-order decay kinetics and on their absorption spectra, the organic radicals formed as intermediates of these reactions were assigned to the corresponding phenoxyl radicals. DFT calculations in the gas phase and aqueous solution support formation of the phenoxyl radicals by H abstraction from the phenols to the sulfate radical anion. The observed recombination of the phenoxyl radicals of gallic acid to yield substituted biphenyls and quinones is also supported by the calculations. HPLC/MS product analysis showed formation of one of the predicted quinones.

Gas-phase chemistry of actinides ions: new insights into the reaction of UO+ and UO2+ with water.

The ability of uranium monoxide cations, UO+ and UO2+, to activate the O-H bond of H2O was studied by using two different approaches of the density functional theory. First, relativistic small-core pseudopotentials were used together with B3LYP hybrid functional. In addition, frozen-core PW91-PW91 calculations were performed within the ZORA approximation. A close description of the reaction mechanisms leading to two different reaction products is presented, including all the involved minima and transition states. Different possible spin states were considered as well as the effect of spin-orbit interactions on the transition state barrier heights. The nature of the chemical bonding of the key minima and transition states was studied by using topological methodologies (ELF, AIM). The obtained results are compared with experimental data, as well as with previous studies on the reaction of the bare uranium cations with water, to analyze the influence of the oxo-ligand in reactivity.

Activation of methane by the iron dimer cation. A theoretical study.

A detailed investigation of the reaction mechanisms underlying the observed reactivity of the iron dimer cation with respect to methane has been performed by density functional hybrid (B3LYP) and nonhybrid (BPW91) calculations. Minima and transition states have been fully optimized and characterized along the potential energy surfaces leading to three different exit channels for both the ground and the first excited states of the dimer. A comparison with our previous work covering the reactivity of the Fe(+) monomer was made to underline similarities and differences of the reaction mechanisms. Results show that geometric arrangements corresponding to bridged positions of the ligands with respect to iron atoms are always favored and stabilize intermediates, transition states and products, facilitating their formation. Binding energies of reaction products have been computed and compared with experimental measurements, and ELF analysis of the bond has been performed to rationalize trends as a function of the structure.

Energetic and topological analyses of the oxidation reaction between Mo(n) (n = 1, 2) and N2O.

The interaction between molybdenum, atom, and dimer, with nitrous oxide has been investigated using density functional theory. The analysis of the potential energy surfaces for both reactions has revealed that a single molybdenum atom can activate the N--O bond of N2O requiring a small activation energy. However, the presence of several intersystem crossings between three different spin states, namely, septet, quintet and triplet states, seems to be the major constraint to the Mo + N2O reaction. Contrarily, the low-lying excited states (triplet and quintet) do not participate in the reaction between the molybdenum dimer and N2O. The latter reaction fully evolves on the singlet spin surface. Three different regions have been distinguished along the pathway: formation of an adduct complex, formation of an inserted compound, and the N2 detachment. The connection between the two first regions has been characterized by the formation of a special complex in which the N--O bond is so weakened that it could be considered as a first step in the insertion process. It has been shown that the topological changes along the pathways provide a clear explanation for the geometrical changes that occur along the reaction pathway. In summary, the detachment of the N2 molecule is found to be kinetically an effective process for both reactions, owing to the high exothermicity and consequently to the high internal energy of the insertion intermediates. However, in the case of Mo atom, the reaction should be a slow process due to the presence of spin-forbidden transitions. These results fully agree with previous experimental works.

Density functional study of ammonia activation by late first-row transition metal cations.

Density functional theory (DFT) in its B3LYP implementation is used to investigate the reaction of ammonia with the late (Co(+), Ni(+), and Cu(+)) first-row transition metal cations in both high- and low-spin states. The potential energy surfaces (PES's) leading to three different exit channels are closely examined. The binding energies for the reaction products are calculated and compared with the corresponding experimental values. A comparison with our earlier works covering the reactivity of the Sc-Fe series of cations is made in order to underline similarities and differences of the reaction mechanisms as well as to establish trends along the row.

Energetic and topological analysis of the reaction of Mo and Mo2 with NH3, C2H2, and C2H4 molecules.

The Density functional theory has been applied to characterize the structural features of Mo(1,2)-NH(3),-C(2)H(4), and -C(2)H(2) compounds. Coordination modes, geometrical structures, and binding energies have been calculated for several spin multiplets. It has been shown that in contrast to the conserved spin cases (Mo(1,2)-NH(3)), the interaction between Mo (or Mo(2)) and C(2)H(4) (or C(2)H(2)) are the low-spin (Mo-C(2)H(4) and -C(2)H(2)) and high-spin (Mo(2)-C(2)H(4) and -C(2)H(2)) complexes. In the ground state of Mo(1,2)-C(2)H(4) and -C(2)H(2), the metal-center always reacts with the C-C center. The spontaneous formation of the global minima is found to be possible due to the crossing between the potential energy surfaces (ground and excited states with respect to the metallic center). The bonding characterization has been performed using the topological analysis of the Electron Localization Function. It has been shown that the most stable electronic structure for a pi-acceptor ligand correlates with a maximum charge transfer from the metal center to the C-C bond of the unsaturated hydrocarbons, resulting in the formation of two new basins located on the carbon atoms (away from hydrogen atoms) and the reduction of the number of attractors of the C-C basin. The interaction between Mo(1,2) and C(2)H(4) (or C(2)H(2)) should be considered as a chemical reaction, which causes the multiplicity change. Contrarily, there is no charge transfer between Mo(1,2) and NH(3), and the partners are bound by an electrostatic interaction.