Here one time, gone the next: Fluctuations in support received and provided predict changes in relationship satisfaction across the transition to parenthood.

Extant research has demonstrated that higher mean (average) levels of social support often produce robust relational benefits. However, partners may not maintain the same level of support across time, resulting in potential fluctuations (i.e., within-person variations across time) in support. Despite the theorizing and initial research on fluctuations in relationship-relevant thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, little is known about (a) who is most likely to fluctuate in support and (b) the degree to which fluctuations, in combination with and beyond mean levels, impact relationships across time. The current preregistered research examined two dyadic longitudinal samples of first-time parents undergoing the transition to parenthood, a chronically stressful time that often entails the provision and receipt of support involving one's partner. Across both studies, we found that individuals who reported greater mental health problems, more situational stress, and more destructive dispositional attributes tended to report lower mean levels and higher fluctuations in provided and received support at subsequent assessments. Moreover, we found that greater fluctuations in perceptions and observations of support predicted decreases in relationship satisfaction over time, above and beyond the effect of mean levels. Implications for theory and studying nonlinear effects in relationships are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Role of discrimination and resilience on birth weight: A systematic examination in a sample of Black, Latina, and White women.

INTRODUCTION: Health inequities begin before birth with Black women being more likely to have low birth weight babies than White and Latina women. Although both Latina and Black women experience discrimination, only Black women appear to be affected. METHODS: In this study using medical records and face-to-face interviews, we systematically examined the role of discrimination (daily, environmental, vicarious) on continuous birth weight (controlling for gestational age and baby's gender) in a sample of 329 Black, Latina, and White pregnant women, as well as whether familism, prayer, and/or discrimination attribution buffered this association. RESULTS: Linear regression analyses revealed that only prayer acted as a resilience factor, with Latina women appearing to benefit from prayer in the link between vicarious and daily discrimination on birth weight conditional on gestational age, whereas Black women showed no moderation and White women showed an exacerbation in the link. DISCUSSION: The results of this study suggest that sociocultural norms may play a role in explaining the Latina epidemiological paradox, but more research is needed to understand the significance.

New parental positivity: The role of positive emotions in promoting relational adjustment during the transition to parenthood.

The transition to parenthood can be a challenging time for new parent couples, as a baby comes with changes and stress that can negatively influence new parents' relational functioning in the form of reduced relationship satisfaction and disrupted partner social support. Yet, the transition to parenthood is also often experienced as a joyous time. In this research, we draw on the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions to suggest that new parents' positive emotions are not merely an enjoyable distraction, but are instead central to their relational adjustment. Specifically, we hypothesized that new parents who experienced greater positive emotions would report enhanced relationship satisfaction and partner social support across time. To test these ideas, we drew on two dyadic and longitudinal studies of new parents. In Study 1, 104 couples (208 individuals) completed surveys across the course of 1 year, and in Study 2, 192 couples (384 individuals) completed surveys and a laboratory-based social support interaction over the course of 2 years. At each wave of data collection, participants completed assessments of positive emotions, relationship satisfaction, and partner social support. We examined how actor and partner positive emotions longitudinally predicted relational adjustment across time. Results demonstrated that, even when controlling for baseline levels of each outcome variable, greater actor reports of positive emotions prospectively predicted greater subsequent actor (a) relationship satisfaction, (b) perceptions of social support from the partner, and (c) enacted social support as rated by independent observers, a pattern that was especially prominent for fathers. These results suggest positive emotions may be a resource that fosters healthy relational adjustment during chronically stressful periods that threaten intimate relationships, including during the transition to parenthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Health behavior adherence and emotional adjustment during the COVID-19 pandemic in a US nationally representative sample: The roles of prosocial motivation and gratitude.

RATIONALE: Substantial health behavior change (e.g., social distancing, mask-wearing) is needed to slow COVID-19. Yet, adherence to these guidelines varies, and avoiding social contact may contribute to declines in emotional adjustment. OBJECTIVE AND METHODS: Drawing on prior research linking social motives to health behavior and well-being, we investigated the associations among social motives (prosocial motivation, gratitude) and resilience to social distancing (health behavior adherence, emotional adjustment) in a US nationally representative sample (N = 1007) collected in April 2020. RESULTS: Prosocial motivation, but not gratitude, correlated with health behavior adherence and social distancing practice. Conversely, gratitude, but not prosocial motivation, correlated with emotional adjustment (daily accomplishments, meaning in life, thriving, psychological distress, positive and negative affect). Analyses controlled for gratitude/prosocial motivation, self-focused motivation, COVID-19 worries, work arrangement, stay-at-home order, likelihood of COVID-19 diagnosis, and demographics. CONCLUSION: Public health campaigns focusing on the benefits of health behaviors for others, rather than just oneself, may promote adherence and emotional adjustment.

Anxiety across the transition to parenthood: change trajectories among low-risk parents.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: A number of sources suggest changes in anxiety across the transition to parenthood may be experienced by parents in different ways, yet no studies have examined whether new parents experience changes in anxiety in distinct subgroups. DESIGN: We conducted a longitudinal study of 208 first-time parents (104 couples) from a low-risk population. Parents were interviewed from the third trimester of pregnancy to nine-months postpartum. METHODS: The current study utilized latent class growth analysis to explore subgroups of change in symptoms of anxiety. Based on stress and coping theory, we also examined a number of personal and social prenatal predictors of subgroup membership. RESULTS: We identified two distinct change trajectories: (1) moderate and stable and (2) low and declining. We also found prenatal depression, expected parenting efficacy, and relationship satisfaction were significantly associated with subgroup membership. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest a majority of new parents adjust well to parenthood in terms of anxiety, while a smaller subgroup of parents experience continually higher levels of anxiety months after the baby is born.

First-time parents' expectations about the division of childcare and play.

The current study examines violated expectations regarding the division of childcare and play in first-time parents during the initial transition to parenthood. The study's goal was threefold: (a) to compare prenatal expectations with the reported postpartum division of childcare and play, (b) to compare the influence of the reported division versus violated expectations on postpartum relationship satisfaction and depression, and (c) to examine the role of persistent violations of expectations on these outcomes. Couples expecting their first child were interviewed during the third trimester of pregnancy and at 1 and 4 months postpartum. Results indicated both mothers and fathers have unrealistic expectations during pregnancy; interestingly, the direction violation was opposite but converging for mothers and fathers. As found in prior research, mothers experienced unmet expectations with fathers doing less than mothers expected. Fathers, on the other hand, experienced overmet expectations with mothers doing more than fathers expected. Violated expectations were also a stronger predictor of depression and relationship satisfaction than the reported division, although again in opposite directions for mothers and fathers. Unmet expectations were negative for mothers, while overmet expectations with regard to childcare tasks were beneficial for fathers. The one caveat was for fathers' overmet expectations with play; in this case, a mother playing with the baby more than a father expected was related to less relationship satisfaction. A similar pattern of results was found for mothers and fathers with persistent violations. This study highlights the importance of understanding violated expectations in both mothers and fathers, as well as examining play separately from childcare.

Stereotype threat and the exercise/dietary health intentions of overweight women.

Overweight individuals face significant prejudice and discrimination in daily life yet it is not well understood how factors associated with prejudice and discrimination (i.e. negative social stereotypes) impact overweight individuals' exercise/dietary health intentions. It is proposed that the Model of Stereotype Threat may serve as a useful theoretical tool for interpreting the situational impact of negative stereotypes on the health intentions of overweight individuals. Analyses with a community sample of 100 clinically overweight women showed that priming overweight women to think about weight-related stereotypes led to significantly diminished exercise and dietary health intentions.

The impact of support network substitution on low-income women's health: are minor children beneficial substitutes?

Poor women have elevated stress but also face deficits in their social networks to provide help. Consequently, they may substitute their minor children as a support source in place of more traditional ties. Support substitution and compensation theory suggest this form of substitution may not lead to compensatory benefits. We hypothesized that low-income mothers experiencing high levels of acute and network stress would be more likely to rely on their minor children, and this reliance on minor children would be related to worse health outcomes through its impact on minor children's well-being. In an interview-based community study of 116 low-income mothers from Northeast Ohio, USA we found that acute stress (but not network stress) was related to greater reliance on minor children for support and the impact on minor children's well-being mediated the link with low-income mothers' worse health outcomes. These results suggest that the reason for and type of social network substitution may determine whether compensatory benefits are realized.

A psychosocial resource impairment model explaining partner violence and distress: moderating role of income.

This study examines the role of income in a psychosocial resource impairment model that explains partner violence and distress. Using data from a nationally representative sample, we test whether psychosocial resources of social support and self-esteem operate differently in four income groups (poor, "working"-poor, middle and upper-income). Structural equation modeling shows that among women considered working-poor, low self-esteem is relevant for the process through which violence becomes linked to distress. Women of upper-income appear distinct with negative interactions serving as sole mediator of violence and distress. Other findings indicate impaired support may mediate the violence and distress relation for women, regardless of income. Overall, income partially moderates the impact of partner violence on distress, suggesting social contexts should be considered when examining the effects of violence.

The frequency, nature, and effects of naturally occurring appearance-focused social comparisons.

This research examined the effects of naturally occurring appearance-focused social comparisons on women's affect, body satisfaction, and weight-related cognitions. During their daily activities, women reporting body dissatisfaction (n=53) and women reporting body satisfaction (n=34) recorded their reactions to comparison information. Body-dissatisfied women engaged in more comparisons and a greater proportion of upward comparisons than body-satisfied women. Upward comparisons were associated with an increase in negative affect, body dissatisfaction, and thoughts of exercising for both groups; however, body-dissatisfied women experienced a greater increase in thoughts of dieting following upward comparisons. The daily effects of comparison information on body-dissatisfied women were examined; upward comparisons were associated with increases in daily negative affect, body dissatisfaction, and weight-related cognitions.

The relationships among trauma, stress, ethnicity, and binge eating.

The present study investigated whether trauma, stress, and discriminatory experiences influenced binge eating among 93 African American and 85 Caucasian women. Trauma and stress were significantly related to binge eating for both groups, although the stress- binge eating relationship was stronger for Caucasian women. Ethnicity did not moderate the relationship between trauma and binge eating, but did moderate the stress-binge eating relationship. Finally, the hypothesis that trauma and stress would influence binge eating through their effects on function of eating was partially supported; the relationship between stress and binge eating was partially mediated by function of eating among Caucasian women. The implications of these findings for our understanding of binge eating are discussed.

Attachment styles and contingencies of self-worth.

Previous research on attachment theory has focused on mean differences in level of self-esteem among people with different attachment styles. The present study examines the associations between attachment styles and different bases of self-esteem, or contingencies of self-worth, among a sample of 795 college students. Results showed that attachment security was related to basing self-worth on family support. Both the preoccupied attachment style and fearful attachment style were related to basing self-worth on physical attractiveness. The dismissing attachment style was related to basing self-worth less on others' approval, family support, and God's love.

Social distribution of social support: the mediating role of life events.

Although the relation of socioeconomic status (SES) to social support has been discussed for some time, researchers have rarely systematically examined the social patterning of this resource. In addition, potential explanatory mechanisms have not been investigated. This study examined both the social distribution of social support and the role of life events in the association between SES and social support in a nationally representative probability sample of adults from the National Cormorbidity Survey. Higher education and income were related to more emotional support and fewer negative interactions. Individuals with higher incomes were also less likely to report acute and chronic life events. Finally, acute (but not chronic) life events mediated the relation between SES and social support (both emotional support and negative interactions). These results suggest the inability of lower SES individuals to mobilize social support in times of need may be explained by their more frequent experience of acute life events.

Role of kin and nonkin support in the mental health of low-income women.

Data from the Worcester Family Research Project were analyzed to determine whether social support processes are altered by poverty and whether kin and nonkin support are differentially related to mental health in low-income mothers. The authors found that conflict with family and friends predicted adverse mental health and more strongly predicted these outcomes than emotional and instrumental support. Moreover, sibling conflict was a stronger predictor of mental health than parent conflict. Finally, only instrumental support from professionals predicted mental health.