ABSTRACT
CHR-2797 is a novel metalloenzyme inhibitor that is converted into a pharmacologically active acid product (CHR-79888) inside cells. CHR-79888 is a potent inhibitor of a number of intracellular aminopeptidases, including leucine aminopeptidase. CHR-2797 exerts antiproliferative effects against a range of tumor cell lines in vitro and in vivo and shows selectivity for transformed over nontransformed cells. Its antiproliferative effects are at least 300 times more potent than the prototypical aminopeptidase inhibitor, bestatin. However, the mechanism by which inhibition of these enzymes leads to proliferative changes is not understood. Gene expression microarrays were used to profile changes in mRNA expression levels in the human promyelocytic leukemia cell line HL-60 treated with CHR-2797. This analysis showed that CHR-2797 treatment induced a transcriptional response indicative of amino acid depletion, the amino acid deprivation response, which involves up-regulation of amino acid synthetic genes, transporters, and tRNA synthetases. These changes were confirmed in other leukemic cell lines sensitive to the antiproliferative effects of CHR-2797. Furthermore, CHR-2797 treatment inhibited phosphorylation of mTOR substrates and reduced protein synthesis in HL-60 cells, both also indicative of amino acid depletion. Treatment with CHR-2797 led to an increase in the concentration of intracellular small peptides, the substrates of aminopeptidases. It is suggested that aminopeptidase inhibitors, such as CHR-2797 and bestatin, deplete sensitive tumor cells of amino acids by blocking protein recycling, and this generates an antiproliferative effect. CHR-2797 is orally bioavailable and currently undergoing phase II clinical investigation in the treatment of myeloid leukemia.
Subject(s)
Amino Acids/metabolism , Aminopeptidases/antagonists & inhibitors , Cell Proliferation/drug effects , Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology , Glycine/analogs & derivatives , Hydroxamic Acids/pharmacology , Aminopeptidases/metabolism , Animals , Biomarkers, Tumor/metabolism , Electrophoresis, Polyacrylamide Gel , Eukaryotic Initiation Factor-2/metabolism , Gene Expression Profiling , Gene Expression Regulation, Leukemic , Glycine/pharmacology , HL-60 Cells/drug effects , HL-60 Cells/enzymology , HL-60 Cells/pathology , Humans , Immunoblotting , Leucine/analogs & derivatives , Leucine/pharmacology , Mice , Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis , Peptide Fragments/metabolism , Phenylalanine/analogs & derivatives , Phenylalanine/pharmacology , Phosphorylation/drug effects , Protein Kinases/metabolism , Protein Synthesis Inhibitors , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-bcl-2/metabolism , RNA, Messenger/genetics , RNA, Messenger/metabolism , Rats , Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction , TOR Serine-Threonine Kinases , Thiophenes/pharmacology , Tumor Cells, Cultured , Xenograft Model Antitumor AssaysABSTRACT
Steroid receptor RNA activator (SRA), the only known RNA coactivator, augments transactivation by nuclear receptors (NRs). We identified SLIRP (SRA stem-loop interacting RNA binding protein) binding to a functional substructure of SRA, STR7. SLIRP is expressed in normal and tumor tissues, contains an RNA recognition motif (RRM), represses NR transactivation in a SRA- and RRM-dependent manner, augments the effect of Tamoxifen, and modulates association of SRC-1 with SRA. SHARP, a RRM-containing corepressor, also binds STR7, augmenting repression with SLIRP. SLIRP colocalizes with SKIP (Chr14q24.3), another NR coregulator, and reduces SKIP-potentiated NR signaling. SLIRP is recruited to endogenous promoters (pS2 and metallothionein), the latter in a SRA-dependent manner, while NCoR promoter recruitment is dependent on SLIRP. The majority of the endogenous SLIRP resides in the mitochondria. Our data demonstrate that SLIRP modulates NR transactivation, suggest it may regulate mitochondrial function, and provide mechanistic insight into interactions between SRA, SLIRP, SRC-1, and NCoR.
Subject(s)
Nuclear Proteins/metabolism , RNA, Untranslated/metabolism , RNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism , Repressor Proteins/metabolism , Amino Acid Sequence , Animals , Base Sequence , Breast Neoplasms/metabolism , COS Cells , Chlorocebus aethiops , Cloning, Molecular , DNA-Binding Proteins , Female , HeLa Cells , Histone Acetyltransferases , Homeodomain Proteins/genetics , Homeodomain Proteins/metabolism , Humans , Mitochondria/metabolism , Molecular Sequence Data , Nuclear Proteins/genetics , Nuclear Receptor Co-Repressor 1 , Nuclear Receptor Coactivator 1 , Promoter Regions, Genetic , Protein Conformation , RNA, Long Noncoding , RNA, Untranslated/genetics , RNA-Binding Proteins/chemistry , RNA-Binding Proteins/genetics , Repressor Proteins/genetics , Sequence Alignment , Transcription Factors/genetics , Transcription Factors/metabolism , Tumor Cells, CulturedABSTRACT
Continuous administration of GnRH analogs results in an inhibition of tumor growth that may be mediated in part by direct activation of GnRH receptors (GnRHRs) expressed on tumor cells. However, it is not fully understood how the GnRHR mediates these growth effects. This study aimed to determine how the presence or absence of this receptor in different cell types might affect the ability of GnRH to directly mediate growth effects. We demonstrate that continuous treatment with GnRH or a GnRH agonist (GnRHA) induces an antiproliferative effect in a gonadotrope-derived cell line (LbetaT2) and also in HEK293 cells stably expressing either the rat or human GnRHR. The antiproliferative effect was time and dose dependent and was verified using [3H]thymidine incorporation, light microscopy, and analysis of cell number. Inhibition was specifically mediated via the GnRHR, as cotreatment of the GnRHR-expressing cell lines with a GnRH antagonist blocked the growth-suppressive effect induced by GnRHA treatment. Cell cycle analysis revealed that GnRHA-treated HEK/GnRHR cell lines induced an accumulation of cells in the G2/M phase, whereas a G0/G1 arrest was observed in LbetaT2 cells. GnRHA treatment also caused a small, but significant, increase in apoptotic cells. This study provides evidence for a direct role for the GnRHR in mediating antiproliferative events in two cell systems, neither of which was derived from extrapituitary reproductive tumors. The ability to induce these effects, regardless of the cell system involved, has implications regarding the use of GnRH analogs for the treatment of endocrine-related disorders and tumors.
