Down-regulation of interleukin 7 mRNA by hypoxia is calcium dependent.

OBJECTIVE: The discovery of IL-7R(alpha) polymorphisms implicated in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis has highlighted the importance of interleukin 7 (IL-7) in central nervous system diseases. Hypoxia affects neurological disease states in part by modulating expression of many early and late response genes. The present work used cultured PC12 cells to investigate the effect of hypoxia on IL-7 expression. METHOD: PC12 cells were cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM)/F12 medium. RNA was isolated and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was run to quantify messenger RNA (mRNA) change. Western blots were used to assess IL-7 protein change in the medium. Extracellular free Ca(2+) was removed by using Ca(2+)-free DMEM/F12 with 1 mM ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid for 45 minutes before the start of hypoxia. RESULTS: Exposure of PC12 cells to 1% oxygen for 6 hours decreased IL-7 mRNA by 77% using RT-PCR (p<0.01). Exposure to 1% oxygen for 24 hours decreased IL-7 protein in the medium by 21% (p<0.05). As hypoxia duration increased (2, 4, 6 and 24 hours) or oxygen concentrations decreased (10%, 5% and 1%), IL-7 mRNA expression progressively decreased. Removal of extracellular free Ca(2+) completely prevented these hypoxia-induced decreases of IL-7 mRNA. DISCUSSION: Since IL-7 exhibits trophic properties in developing brain, down-regulation of IL-7 by hypoxia may contribute to hypoxia-induced injury to neural cells.

Bcl-2/adenovirus E1B 19 kDa interacting protein-3 knockdown enables growth of breast cancer metastases in the lung, liver, and bone.

The mouse breast cancer cell lines 4T1, 4T07, and 67NR are highly tumorigenic but vary in metastatic potential: 4T1 widely disseminates, resulting in secondary tumors in the lung, liver, bone, and brain; 4T07 spreads to the lung and liver but is unable to establish metastatic nodules; 67NR is unable to metastasize. The Bcl-2/adenovirus E1B 19 kDa interacting protein-3 (Bnip-3) was recently shown to be absent after hypoxia in pancreatic cancer cell lines whereas its overexpression restored hypoxia-induced cell death. We found that Bnip-3 expression increased after 6 hours of hypoxia in all cell lines tested but was highest in the nonmetastatic 67NR cells and lowest in the highly metastatic 4T1 cells. Hypoxia-induced expression of Bnip-3 in the disseminating but nonmetastatic 4T07 cells was intermediate compared with 4T1 and 67NR cells. Cleaved caspase-3, a key downstream effector of cell death, increased after 6 hours of hypoxia in the 67NR and 4T07 cells by 1.9- and 2.5-fold, respectively. Conversely, cleaved caspase-3 decreased by 45% in the highly metastatic 4T1 cells after hypoxia. Small interfering RNA oligonucleotides targeting endogenous Bnip-3 blocked cell death and increased clonigenic survival after hypoxic challenge in vitro and increased primary tumor size and enabled metastasis to the lung, liver, and sternum of mice inoculated with 4T07 cells in vivo. These data inversely correlate the hypoxia-induced expression of the cell death protein Bnip-3 to metastatic potential and suggest that loss of Bnip-3 expression is critical for malignant and metastatic evasion of hypoxia-induced cell death.

Novel role for cyclin-dependent kinase 2 in neuregulin-induced acetylcholine receptor epsilon subunit expression in differentiated myotubes.

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are a family of evolutionarily conserved serine/threonine kinases. CDK2 acts as a checkpoint for the G(1)/S transition in the cell cycle. Despite a down-regulation of CDK2 activity in postmitotic cells, many cell types, including muscle cells, maintain abundant levels of CDK2 protein. This led us to hypothesize that CDK2 may have a function in postmitotic cells. We show here for the first time that CDK2 can be activated by neuregulin (NRG) in differentiated C2C12 myotubes. In addition, this activity is required for expression of the acetylcholine receptor (AChR) epsilon subunit. The switch from the fetal AChRgamma subunit to the adult-type AChRepsilon is required for synapse maturation and the neuromuscular junction. Inhibition of CDK2 activity with either the specific CDK2 inhibitory peptide Tat-LFG or by RNA interference abolished neuregulin-induced AChRepsilon expression. Neuregulin-induced activation of CDK2 also depended on the ErbB receptor, MAPK, and PI3K, all of which have previously been shown to be required for AChRepsilon expression. Neuregulin regulated CDK2 activity through coordinating phosphorylation of CDK2 on Thr-160, accumulation of CDK2 in the nucleus, and down-regulation of the CDK2 inhibitory protein p27 in the nucleus. In addition, we also observed a novel mechanism of regulation of CDK2 activity by a low molecular weight variant of cyclin E in response to NRG. These findings establish CDK2 as an intermediate molecule that integrates NRG-activated signals from both the MAPK and PI3K pathways to AChRepsilon expression and reveal an undiscovered physiological role for CDK2 in postmitotic cells.

The role of calcium in hypoxia-induced signal transduction and gene expression.

Mammalian cells require a constant supply of oxygen in order to maintain adequate energy production, which is essential for maintaining normal function and for ensuring cell survival. Sustained hypoxia can result in cell death. Sophisticated mechanisms have therefore evolved which allow cells to respond and adapt to hypoxia. Specialized oxygen-sensing cells have the ability to detect changes in oxygen tension and transduce this signal into organ system functions that enhance the delivery of oxygen to tissue in a wide variety of different organisms. An increase in intracellular calcium levels is a primary response of many cell types to hypoxia/ischemia. The response to hypoxia is complex and involves the regulation of multiple signaling pathways and coordinated expression of perhaps hundreds of genes. This review discusses the role of calcium in hypoxia-induced regulation of signal transduction pathways and gene expression. An understanding of the molecular events initiated by changes in intracellular calcium will lead to the development of therapeutic approaches toward the treatment of hypoxic/ischemic diseases and tumors.

Functional genomics approach to hypoxia signaling.

Mammalian cells require a constant supply of oxygen to maintain energy balance, and sustained hypoxia can result in cell death. It is therefore not surprising that sophisticated adaptive mechanisms have evolved that enhance cell survival during hypoxia. During the past few years, there have been a growing number of reports on hypoxia-induced transcription of specific genes. In this review, we describe a unique experimental approach that utilizes focused cDNA libraries coupled to microarray analyses to identify hypoxia-responsive signal transduction pathways and genes that confer the hypoxia-tolerant phenotype. We have used the subtractive suppression hybridization (SSH) method to create a cDNA library enriched in hypoxia-regulated genes in oxygen-sensing pheochromocytoma cells and have used this library to create microarrays that allow us to examine hundreds of genes at a time. This library contains over 300 genes and expressed sequence tags upregulated by hypoxia, including tyrosine hydroxylase, vascular endothelial growth factor, and junB. Hypoxic regulation of these and other genes in the library has been confirmed by microarray, Northern blot, and real-time PCR analyses. Coupling focused SSH libraries with microarray analyses allows one to specifically study genes relevant to a phenotype of interest while reducing much of the biological noise associated with these types of studies. When used in conjunction with high-throughput, dye-based assays for cell survival and apoptosis, this approach offers a rapid method for discovering validated therapeutic targets for the treatment of cardiovascular disease, stroke, and tumors.

Microsomal prostaglandin E2 synthase-1 is induced by conditional expression of RET/PTC in thyroid PCCL3 cells through the activation of the MEK-ERK pathway.

RET/PTC rearrangements are believed to be tumor-initiating events in papillary thyroid carcinomas. We identified microsomal prostaglandin E2 synthase-1 (mPGES-1) as a RET/PTC-inducible gene through subtraction hybridization cloning and expression profiling with custom microarrays. The inducible prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) biosynthetic enzymes cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and mPGES-1 are up-regulated in many cancers. COX-2 is overexpressed in thyroid malignancies compared with benign nodules and normal thyroid tissues. Eicosanoids may promote tumorigenesis through effects on tumor cell growth, immune surveillance, and angiogenesis. Conditional RET/PTC1 or RET/PTC3 expression in PCCL3 thyroid cells markedly induced mPGES-1 and COX-2. PGE2 was the principal prostanoid and up-regulated (by approximately 60-fold), whereas hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid metabolites were decreased, consistent with shunting of prostanoid biosynthesis toward PGE2 by coactivation of the two enzymes. RET/PTC activated mPGES-1 gene transcription. Based on experiments with kinase inhibitors, with PCCL3 cell lines with doxycycline-inducible expression of RET/PTC mutants with substitutions of critical tyrosine residues in the kinase domain, and lines with inducible expression of activated mutants of H-RAS and MEK1, RET/PTC was found to regulate mPGES-1 through Shc-RAS-MEK-ERK. These data show a direct relationship between activation of a tyrosine kinase receptor oncogene and regulation of PGE2 biosynthesis. As enzymes involved in prostanoid biosynthesis can be targeted with pharmacological inhibitors, these findings may have therapeutic implications.

Cobalt inhibits the interaction between hypoxia-inducible factor-alpha and von Hippel-Lindau protein by direct binding to hypoxia-inducible factor-alpha.

The hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) activates the expression of genes that contain a hypoxia response element. The alpha-subunits of the HIF transcription factors are degraded by proteasomal pathways during normoxia but are stabilized under hypoxic conditions. The von Hippel-Lindau protein (pVHL) mediates the ubiquitination and rapid degradation of HIF-alpha (including HIF-1alpha and HIF-2alpha). Post-translational hydroxylation of a proline residue in the oxygen-dependent degradation (ODD) domain of HIF-alpha is required for the interaction between HIF and VHL. It has previously been established that cobalt mimics hypoxia and causes accumulation of HIF-1alpha and HIF-2alpha. However, little is known about the mechanism by which this occurs. In an earlier study, we demonstrated that cobalt binds directly to the ODD domain of HIF-2alpha. Here we provide the first evidence that cobalt inhibits pVHL binding to HIF-alpha even when HIF-alpha is hydroxylated. Deletion of 17 amino acids within the ODD domain of HIF-2alpha that are required for pVHL binding prevented the binding of cobalt and stabilized HIF-2alpha during normoxia. These findings show that cobalt mimics hypoxia, at least in part, by occupying the VHL-binding domain of HIF-alpha and thereby preventing the degradation of HIF-alpha.

Oxygen sensing in neuroendocrine cells and other cell types: pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells as an experimental model.

A steady supply of oxygen is an absolute requirement for mammalian cells to maintain normal cellular functions. To answer the challenge that oxygen deprivation represents, mammals have evolved specialized cell types that can sense changes in oxygen tension and alter gene expression to enhance oxygen delivery to hypoxic areas. These oxygensensing cells are rare and difficult to study in vivo. As a result, pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells have become a vital in vitro model system for deciphering the molecular events that confer the hypoxia-resistant and oxygen-sensing phenotypes. Research over the last few years has revealed that the hypoxia response in PC12 cells involves the interactions of several signal transduction pathways (Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinases, Akt, SAPKs, and MAPKs) and transcription factors (HIFs, CREB, and c-fos/junB). This review summarizes the current understanding of the role these signal transduction pathways and transcription factors play in determining the hypoxic response.

Genomic and physiological analysis of oxygen sensitivity and hypoxia tolerance in PC12 cells.

The mechanisms by which cells adapt and respond to changes in oxygen tension remain largely unknown. Our laboratory has used the PC12 cell line to study both biophysical and molecular responses to hypoxia. This chapter summarizes our findings. We found that membrane depolarization that occurred when PC12 cells were exposed to reduced O(2) was mediated by a specific potassium channel, the Kv1.2 channel. The membrane depolarization leads to increased Ca(2+) conductance through a voltage-sensitive channel, which in turn mediates the release of the neurotransmitters dopamine, adenosine, glutamate, and GABA. In addition, increased intracellular Ca(2+) and other signaling systems regulate hypoxia-induced gene expression, which contributes to the adaptive response to reduced O(2+). We identified several critical signaling pathways that regulate a complex gene expression profile in PC12 cells during hypoxia. These include the cAMP-protein kinase A, Ca(2+)-calmodulin, p42/44 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK; p38 kinase), and the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-AKT as regulators of gene expression. Several of these pathways regulate hypoxia-specific transcription factors that are members of the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) family. Recently, we have successfully used subtractive cDNA libraries and microarray analysis to identify the genomic profile that mediates the cellular response to hypoxia.

In vivo evidence for interferon-gamma-mediated homeostatic mechanisms in small intestine of the NHE3 Na+/H+ exchanger knockout model of congenital diarrhea.

Mice lacking NHE3, the major absorptive Na(+)/H(+) exchanger in the intestine, are the only animal model of congenital diarrhea. To identify molecular changes underlying compensatory mechanisms activated in chronic diarrheas, cDNA microarrays and Northern blot analyses were used to compare global mRNA expression patterns in small intestine of NHE3-deficient and wild-type mice. Among the genes identified were members of the RegIII family of growth factors, which may contribute to the increased absorptive area, and a large number of interferon-gamma-responsive genes. The latter finding is of particular interest, since interferon-gamma has been shown to regulate ion transporter activities in intestinal epithelial cells. Serum interferon-gamma was elevated 5-fold in NHE3-deficient mice; however, there was no evidence of inflammation, and unlike conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease, levels of other cytokines were unchanged. In addition, quantitative PCR analysis showed that up-regulation of interferon-gamma mRNA was localized to the small intestine and did not occur in the colon, spleen, or kidney. These in vivo data suggest that elevated interferon-gamma, produced by gut-associated lymphoid tissue in the small intestine, is part of a homeostatic mechanism that is activated in response to the intestinal absorptive defect in order to regulate the fluidity of the intestinal tract.

Calcium-dependent activation of Pyk2 by hypoxia.

The Pyk2 tyrosine kinase can be activated by both calcium-dependent and calcium-independent mechanisms. Exposure to moderate hypoxia (5% O(2)) induced a rapid and persistent tyrosine phosphorylation of Pyk2 in pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells. Hypoxia and KCl-depolarization increased the phosphotyrosine content of Pyk2 by twofold and fourfold, respectively. Both of these effects were abolished in the absence of extracellular calcium. There was a modest activation of MAPK in parallel with the onset of Pyk2 phosphorylation. However, there was no detectable activation of either JNK or c-src, two other known downstream targets of Pyk2. Thus, exposure to hypoxia may selectively target specific subsets of Pyk2 signalling pathways.