Does parental use of harsh discipline and punishment in response to ambiguous child situations vary by child physical abuse risk?

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: The present study investigated the extent to which fathers and mothers at high-risk and low-risk for child physical abuse (CPA) differed in their use of harsh discipline and punishment when presented ambiguous child situations (situations where differences in positive and negative valences are close to zero). PARTICIPANTS/METHODS: High-risk for CPA parents (N = 74: fathers, n = 41; mothers, n = 33) and low-risk parents (N = 178: fathers, n = 91; mothers, n = 87) were asked to indicate their likelihood of using harsh verbal discipline (HVD), harsh physical discipline (HPD), and punishment (i.e., retributive harm separate from HVD and HPD) after viewing each of eighteen ambiguous child situations. RESULTS: As expected, high-risk, compared to low-risk, for CPA parents were significantly (ps < 0.001) more likely to use HVD (d = 0.546), HPD (d = 0.595), and punishment (d = 0.564). Overall, fathers, relative to mothers, were significantly more likely to use HVD (d = 0.261) and HPD (d = 0.238). For punishment, however, there was no significant parental role (father, mother) difference (d = 0.136). CONCLUSIONS: Since in everyday living situations many child behaviors are ambiguous, the findings that parents, especially high-risk for CPA parents, use harsh discipline and punishment when encountering ambiguous child situations suggest that non-contingent harsh child-related parental behaviors may be frequent in the lives of some children. The findings that parents may use non-contingent discipline and punishment suggest the need to explore whether, when these parenting behaviors occur, they increase the likelihood of negative child outcomes.

Effect sizes and effect size benchmarks in family violence research.

Scholarly journals increasingly request that authors include effect size (ES) estimates when reporting statistical results. However, there is little guidance on how authors should interpret ESs. Consequently, some authors do not provide ES interpretations, or, when interpretations are provided, they often fail to use appropriate reference groups, using instead the ES benchmarks suggested by Cohen (1988). After discussing the most commonly used ES estimates, we describe the method used by Cohen (1962) to develop ES benchmarks (i.e., small, medium, and large) for use in power analyses and describe the limitations associated with using these benchmarks. Next, we establish general benchmarks for family violence (FV) research. That is, we followed Cohen's approach to establishing his original ES benchmarks using family violence research published in 2021 in Child Abuse & Neglect, which produced a medium ES (d = 0.354) that was smaller than Cohen's recommended medium ES (d = 0.500). Then, we examined the ESs in different subspecialty areas of FV research to provide benchmarks for contextualized FV ESs and to provide information that can be used to conduct power analyses when planning future FV research. Finally, some of the challenges to developing ES benchmarks in any scholarly discipline are discussed. For professionals who are not well informed about ESs, the present review is designed to increase their understanding of ESs and what ES benchmarks tell them (and do not tell them) with respect to understanding the meaningfulness of FV research findings.

Prolonged Infant Crying: Caregiving Quality and Child Physical Abuse Risk.

Research suggests that prolonged infant crying may increase risk for child physical abuse (CPA). However, few studies have examined behavioral responses to infant crying among parents at risk for CPA. The present study sought to fill this gap by using a simulated infant to examine how mothers and fathers with varying degrees of CPA risk respond to prolonged infant crying. Specifically, a sample of 184 general population caregivers (107 mothers and 77 fathers) participated in a task that involved attempting to soothe a simulated infant that cried continuously for 30 min. The simulated infant sessions were video-recorded, and quality of caregiving behavior was coded in 5-min segments. Participants rated their negative affect (feelings of upset, distress, irritability) at the outset of the data collection session, before beginning the simulated infant task, and after the simulated infant task concluded. It was predicted that high-risk caregivers, compared to low-risk caregivers, would display lower quality caregiving, higher levels of negative affect, and that CPA risk group differences would increase over time. Gender differences were explored in relation to the aforementioned hypotheses. Over the course of the 30-min simulated infant task, the quality of caregiving behavior diminished among both high- and low-risk caregivers. As expected, high-risk caregivers, compared to low-risk caregivers, exhibited lower quality caregiving behaviors and were more likely to discontinue the simulated infant task early. In addition, high-risk, compared to low-risk, caregivers reported higher levels of negative affect throughout the data collection session, with the highest level of negative affect reported by high-risk caregivers after completing the simulated infant task. Overall, the quality of caregiving exhibited by men and women did not significantly differ. The present findings highlight the importance of early intervention designed to support caregivers' abilities to respond effectively to prolonged infant crying.

Does the Fading Affect Bias Vary by Memory Type and a Parent's Risk of Physically Abusing a Child? A Replication and Extension.

Research described in the present article assessed (a) whether a fading affect bias (FAB) occurred in parent memories of a child as well as parent general personal memories and (b) whether either or both of these FAB effects was moderated by a parent's risk of physically abusing a child. A FAB effect, unmoderated by parents' abuse risk status, emerged for parents' general personal memories. In contrast, the FAB was muted when high abuse risk parents remembered child-related events: High abuse risk parents seemed unable to "let go" of negative affect prompted by recall of negative events involving their children. This finding replicates and extends findings reported in prior research. However, this significant moderation effect occurred for only one event memory collection method. This methodological dependence is unusual: the FAB effect is typically impervious to methodological variations. Implications of these results, as well as suggestions for future research, are discussed.

Do High-Risk Parents Use More Aggression During Competitive Play With Children?

The present study examined the extent to which the aggressive tendencies of parents at risk for perpetrating child physical abuse (CPA) generalize to situations other than discipline-related encounters (e.g., a competitive gaming interaction). Participants included parents who were either low (n = 90) or high (n = 75) risk for CPA. Parents were led to believe that they were playing a game against a child opponent with whom they exchanged sound blasts of varying intensities. Parental sound blast selections served as a proxy for aggressive behavior. Parents were randomly assigned to high or low loss conditions. The fictitious child opponent's responses were pre-programed so that sound blasts received by parents became louder (i.e., more provocative) over time. As predicted, high CPA risk parents exhibited higher levels of aggression than low CPA risk parents. Moreover, high-risk parents reported having higher levels of aggressive motives during the game than low-risk parents; and aggressive motives explained the link between parental CPA risk and parents' aggressive behavior. With one exception, higher levels of child provocation during the game prompted parents to send higher levels of sound blasts. The exception to this pattern occurred among low-risk parents who experienced high rates of loss during the game. Specifically, low-risk parents in the high loss condition continued to send low levels of sound blasts even as their child opponent became more provocative. Aggressive motives (and the ability to change motives as situations change) may help explain differences in aggressive tendencies evinced by parents with varying levels of CPA risk.

Challenges of using protein antibiotics for pathogen control.

Bacterial phytopathogens represent a significant threat to many economically important crops. Current control measures often inflict harm on the environment and may ultimately impact on human health through the spread of antibiotic resistance. Antimicrobial proteins such as bacteriocins have been suggested as the next generation of disease control agents since they are able to specifically target the pathogen of interest with minimal impact on the wider microbial community and environment. However, substantial gaps in knowledge with regards to the efficacy and application of bacteriocins to combat phytopathogenic bacteria remain. Here we highlight the immediate challenges the community must address to ensure maximum exploitation of antimicrobial proteins in the field. © 2021 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Perceived Executive Functioning in Parents at Risk for Child Physical Abuse.

Research suggests that deficits in executive functioning are associated with negative parenting behaviors. However, limited research has examined the link between executive functioning and risk for child physical abuse (CPA) perpetration. Early studies examining executive functioning in parents at risk for perpetrating CPA relied on performance-based measures, which are designed to occur under carefully controlled conditions and may not capture difficulties experienced under less optimal conditions (e.g., during chaotic caregiving situations). Moreover, prior studies examining executive functioning in parents at risk for perpetrating CPA have relied on small samples comprised of only mothers. To advance our understanding of the linkage between executive functioning and CPA risk, the present study examined perceived deficits in executive functioning in a sample of general population mothers and fathers (N = 98) using a standardized self-report measure of executive functioning, namely, the adult version of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF-A). Parents were classified as low CPA risk or high CPA risk using the Child Abuse Potential Inventory. Compared with low-risk parents, high-risk parents had higher rates of clinical elevations on several BRIEF-A subscales, namely, Working Memory Problems, Emotional Control Difficulties, and Difficulties Shifting Thoughts, Feelings, and Behaviors. These findings highlight the potential importance of assessing and strengthening executive functioning in interventions designed to reduce risk of parent-to-child aggression.

Superchiral near fields detect virus structure.

Optical spectroscopy can be used to quickly characterise the structural properties of individual molecules. However, it cannot be applied to biological assemblies because light is generally blind to the spatial distribution of the component molecules. This insensitivity arises from the mismatch in length scales between the assemblies (a few tens of nm) and the wavelength of light required to excite chromophores (≥150 nm). Consequently, with conventional spectroscopy, ordered assemblies, such as the icosahedral capsids of viruses, appear to be indistinguishable isotropic spherical objects. This limits potential routes to rapid high-throughput portable detection appropriate for point-of-care diagnostics. Here, we demonstrate that chiral electromagnetic (EM) near fields, which have both enhanced chiral asymmetry (referred to as superchirality) and subwavelength spatial localisation (∼10 nm), can detect the icosahedral structure of virus capsids. Thus, they can detect both the presence and relative orientation of a bound virus capsid. To illustrate the potential uses of the exquisite structural sensitivity of subwavelength superchiral fields, we have used them to successfully detect virus particles in the complex milieu of blood serum.

Bacteriocins Targeting Gram-Negative Phytopathogenic Bacteria: Plantibiotics of the Future.

Gram-negative phytopathogenic bacteria are a significant threat to food crops. These microbial invaders are responsible for a plethora of plant diseases and can be responsible for devastating losses in crops such as tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, olives, and rice. Current disease management strategies to mitigate yield losses involve the application of chemicals which are often harmful to both human health and the environment. Bacteriocins are small proteinaceous antibiotics produced by bacteria to kill closely related bacteria and thereby establish dominance within a niche. They potentially represent a safer alternative to chemicals when used in the field. Bacteriocins typically show a high degree of selectivity toward their targets with no off-target effects. This review outlines the current state of research on bacteriocins active against Gram-negative phytopathogenic bacteria. Furthermore, we will examine the feasibility of weaponizing bacteriocins for use as a treatment for bacterial plant diseases.

Exploring Positive Classical Conditioning Procedure Effects on Evaluations of Children, Thoughts About Children, and Behaviors Toward Children: Two Experiments.

Exposing parents to a positive classical conditioning (+CC) procedure can (a) prompt positive evaluations of children, (b) alter judgments made about children from their behavior, and (c) reduce harsh behaviors enacted toward children. Two studies explored possible limits of these effects. Results from Study 1 showed that only some +CC effects evinced in prior research emerged when the positive trait words used as the unconditioned stimuli in prior research were replaced with positive emojis. Results from Study 2 showed with positive trait word stimuli that a backward +CC procedure produced many of the same effects produced by the forward +CC procedure. These results collectively support the idea that +CC procedures may simultaneously prompt several different kinds of learning. From a practical perspective, consideration of these various kinds of learning is important to an understanding of when the use of the +CC procedure might reduce child abuse risk.

Engineering bacteriocin-mediated resistance against the plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae.

The plant pathogen, Pseudomonas syringae (Ps), together with related Ps species, infects and attacks a wide range of agronomically important crops, including tomato, kiwifruit, pepper, olive and soybean, causing economic losses. Currently, chemicals and introduced resistance genes are used to protect plants against these pathogens but have limited success and may have adverse environmental impacts. Consequently, there is a pressing need to develop alternative strategies to combat bacterial disease in crops. One such strategy involves using narrow-spectrum protein antibiotics (so-called bacteriocins), which diverse bacteria use to compete against closely related species. Here, we demonstrate that one bacteriocin, putidacin L1 (PL1), can be expressed in an active form at high levels in Arabidopsis and in Nicotiana benthamiana in planta to provide effective resistance against diverse pathovars of Ps. Furthermore, we find that Ps strains that mutate to acquire tolerance to PL1 lose their O-antigen, exhibit reduced motility and still cannot induce disease symptoms in PL1-transgenic Arabidopsis. Our results provide proof-of-principle that the transgene-mediated expression of a bacteriocin in planta can provide effective disease resistance to bacterial pathogens. Thus, the expression of bacteriocins in crops might offer an effective strategy for managing bacterial disease, in the same way that the genetic modification of crops to express insecticidal proteins has proven to be an extremely successful strategy for pest management. Crucially, nearly all genera of bacteria, including many plant pathogenic species, produce bacteriocins, providing an extensive source of these antimicrobial agents.

Probing Specificity of Protein-Protein Interactions with Chiral Plasmonic Nanostructures.

Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) play a pivotal role in many biological processes. Discriminating functionally important well-defined protein-protein complexes formed by specific interactions from random aggregates produced by nonspecific interactions is therefore a critical capability. While there are many techniques which enable rapid screening of binding affinities in PPIs, there is no generic spectroscopic phenomenon which provides rapid characterization of the structure of protein-protein complexes. In this study we show that chiral plasmonic fields probe the structural order and hence the level of PPI specificity in a model antibody-antigen system. Using surface-immobilized Fab' fragments of polyclonal rabbit IgG antibodies with high specificity for bovine serum albumin (BSA), we show that chiral plasmonic fields can discriminate between a structurally anisotropic ensemble of BSA-Fab' complexes and random ovalbumin (OVA)-Fab' aggregates, demonstrating their potential as the basis of a useful proteomic technology for the initial rapid high-throughput screening of PPIs.

Child-related attributions of hostile intent and harsh discipline: Moderating effects of anger.

Two studies tested whether attributions of hostile intent (AHI) and anger for ambiguous child behaviors uniquely predict parents' harsh verbal discipline (HVD) and harsh physical discipline (HPD) or whether AHI only predicts harsh discipline when AHI occurs in conjunction with anger, as suggested by the Integrated Cognitive Model of general aggression (Wilkowski & Robinson, 2010, J. Pers., 78, 9-38). Replicating previous studies, the expected positive bivariate relationships between AHI, anger, HVD, and HPD were found in Study 1 (N = 493). However, when AHI, anger, and the AHI by anger interaction were considered simultaneously, patterns of prediction varied by discipline type. For HVD, high levels of AHI, high levels of anger, and the AHI by anger interaction (at high levels of AHI and anger) each were significant predictors. For HPD, low levels of AHI, high levels of anger, and the AHI by anger interaction (at high levels of AHI and anger) were significant predictors, suggesting a possible suppressor effect for AHI. These results were replicated in Study 2 ( N = 503). Thus, there was support for the contention that AHI only predicts harsh discipline when AHI occurs in conjunction with anger with respect to HPD but this was not the case for HVD. Since AHI suppressor effects were observed for HPD in two large sample studies, variables that may account for the AHI suppressor effects and the need for testing more complex interactive predictive models of harsh parenting behaviors are discussed.

Do emotion regulation difficulties explain the association between executive functions and child physical abuse risk?

This study examined the associations between executive functioning problems, emotion regulation difficulties, and risk for perpetrating child physical abuse (CPA). It was hypothesized that: (a) poor executive functions (i.e., working memory problems and inhibition/switching problems) would be associated with higher levels of emotion regulation difficulties and CPA risk; (b) emotion regulation difficulties would be positively associated with CPA risk; and (c) emotion regulation difficulties would partially explain the association between executive functions (i.e., working memory problems and inhibition/switching problems) and CPA risk. To examine these predictions, a sample of 133 general population parents (31% fathers) completed self-report measures of CPA risk, emotion regulation difficulties, working memory problems, and a performance-based measure of inhibition/switching skills. Results revealed that executive functioning problems were linked with emotion regulation difficulties, which in turn were associated with CPA risk. Moreover, emotion regulation difficulties explained the relationship between executive functions (working memory, inhibition/switching) and CPA risk. The final model accounted for 41% of the variance in CPA risk. Although additional research is needed, the present findings suggest that enhancing parents' executive functioning and teaching them effective emotion regulation skills may be important targets for CPA prevention efforts.

Child maltreatment re-offending in families served by the United States Air Force Family Advocacy Program.

The current study examined child maltreatment re-offending in United States Air Force (USAF) families. In a clinical database containing 24,999 child maltreatment incidents perpetrated by 15,042 offenders between the years 1997 and 2013, 13% of offenders maltreated a child on more than one date (i.e., they re-offended). We explored several offender demographic characteristics associated with who re-offended and found that civilians re-offended at a similar rate as active duty members, males re-offended at a similar rate as females, and younger offenders were more likely to re-offend than older offenders. We also explored incident characteristics associated with who re-offended: Re-offending was more likely if the initial maltreatment was neglect or emotional abuse and re-offenders were likely to perpetrate subsequent maltreatment that was the same type and severity as their initial incident. The current data indicate that young offenders and offenders of neglect and emotional maltreatment are the greatest risk of re-offending. These offender and incident characteristics could be used by the USAF to guide their efforts to reduce re-offending.

Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability in Parents at Risk for Child Physical Abuse.

The present study examined heart rate and heart rate variability (i.e., respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]) in a sample of 48 general population parents (41.7% fathers), who were either at high risk (n = 24) or low risk (n = 24) for child physical abuse. During baseline assessments of heart rate and RSA, parents sat quietly for 3 min. Afterward, parents were presented with a series of anagrams (either easy or difficult) and were instructed to solve as many anagrams as possible in 3 min. As expected, high-risk (compared with low-risk) parents evinced significantly higher resting heart rate and significantly lower resting RSA. During the anagram task, high-risk parents did not evince significant changes in heart rate or RSA relative to baseline levels. In contrast, low-risk parents evinced significant increases in heart rate and significant decreases in RSA during the anagram task. Contrary to expectations, the anagram task difficulty did not moderate the study findings. Collectively, this pattern of results is consistent with the notion that high-risk parents have chronically higher levels of physiological arousal relative to low-risk parents and exhibit less physiological flexibility in response to environmental demands. High-risk parents may benefit from interventions that include components that reduce physiological arousal and increase the capacity to regulate arousal effectively.

Selective autophagy limits cauliflower mosaic virus infection by NBR1-mediated targeting of viral capsid protein and particles.

Autophagy plays a paramount role in mammalian antiviral immunity including direct targeting of viruses and their individual components, and many viruses have evolved measures to antagonize or even exploit autophagy mechanisms for the benefit of infection. In plants, however, the functions of autophagy in host immunity and viral pathogenesis are poorly understood. In this study, we have identified both anti- and proviral roles of autophagy in the compatible interaction of cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV), a double-stranded DNA pararetrovirus, with the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana We show that the autophagy cargo receptor NEIGHBOR OF BRCA1 (NBR1) targets nonassembled and virus particle-forming capsid proteins to mediate their autophagy-dependent degradation, thereby restricting the establishment of CaMV infection. Intriguingly, the CaMV-induced virus factory inclusions seem to protect against autophagic destruction by sequestering capsid proteins and coordinating particle assembly and storage. In addition, we found that virus-triggered autophagy prevents extensive senescence and tissue death of infected plants in a largely NBR1-independent manner. This survival function significantly extends the timespan of virus production, thereby increasing the chances for virus particle acquisition by aphid vectors and CaMV transmission. Together, our results provide evidence for the integration of selective autophagy into plant immunity against viruses and reveal potential viral strategies to evade and adapt autophagic processes for successful pathogenesis.

Do hostile attributions and negative affect explain the association between authoritarian beliefs and harsh parenting?

The present study examined the associations between authoritarian parenting beliefs, attributions of hostile intent, negative affect, and harsh parenting practices. General population parents (N=183; 31.1% fathers) completed self-report measures of authoritarian parenting beliefs and read vignettes describing children engaging in transgressions. Following each vignette, parents indicated the extent to which they would attribute hostile intent to the child, feel negative affect, and respond with harsh parenting practices (e.g., yelling, hitting). As hypothesized, parents who subscribed to higher levels of authoritarian beliefs attributed more hostile intent to the child and expected to feel more negative affect in response to the transgressions. In turn, higher levels of hostile attributions and negative affect were associated with increased likelihood of harsh parenting practices. Results from a path analysis revealed that the association between authoritarian parenting beliefs and harsh parenting practices was fully explained by attributions of hostile intent and negative affect.

Parents' spontaneous evaluations of children and symbolic harmful behaviors toward their child.

Parents' evaluations of children are believed to be a cognitive contributor to their subsequent child-directed harsh or physically abusive behaviors. The current research examined whether parents' (N=100) evaluations of children were moderated by either (a) the child behavior on which the evaluation was based and (b) parents' measured risk for child physical abuse. The study also explored whether parents' evaluations of children were related to their tendencies to symbolically harm their child. The current study also used a novel method to indirectly assess parents' evaluations of children: A modified Affect Misattribution Procedure. Contrary to a priori expectations, negative evaluations of children were stronger for parents who were at low risk, relative to high risk, for child physical abuse. Nonetheless, we observed that high-risk parents were more likely than low-risk parents to inflict symbolic harm onto their child. In an exploratory analysis we observed that parents who formed more overall negative evaluations of children engaged in more symbolic harm to their child. Although high-risk parents were more likely to symbolically harm their child than low-risk parents, this effect does not seem to be due to high-risk parents' negative child evaluations from negative child behaviors.

Structure of the bacterial plant-ferredoxin receptor FusA.

Iron is a limiting nutrient in bacterial infection putting it at the centre of an evolutionary arms race between host and pathogen. Gram-negative bacteria utilize TonB-dependent outer membrane receptors to obtain iron during infection. These receptors acquire iron either in concert with soluble iron-scavenging siderophores or through direct interaction and extraction from host proteins. Characterization of these receptors provides invaluable insight into pathogenesis. However, only a subset of virulence-related TonB-dependent receptors have been currently described. Here we report the discovery of FusA, a new class of TonB-dependent receptor, which is utilized by phytopathogenic Pectobacterium spp. to obtain iron from plant ferredoxin. Through the crystal structure of FusA we show that binding of ferredoxin occurs through specialized extracellular loops that form extensive interactions with ferredoxin. The function of FusA and the presence of homologues in clinically important pathogens suggests that small iron-containing proteins represent an iron source for bacterial pathogens.