Report on Honduras: ripples in the pond--the financial crisis and remittances to chronically ill patients in Honduras.

The U.S. financial crisis has affected employment opportunities for Latino immigrants, and this could affect their ability to send financial assistance, or "remittances", to chronically ill family members in their home country. In a cross-sectional survey of 624 chronically ill adults conducted in Honduras between June and August 2009, respondents reported their receipt of remittances, health service use, and cost-related access barriers. Fifty-four percent of respondents reported relatives living outside the country, and of this group, 66 percent (37% of the overall sample) received remittances. Seventy-four percent of respondents receiving remittances reported a decrease over the prior year, mostly due to job losses among their relatives abroad. Respondents reporting reductions in remittances received significantly less per month, on average, than those without a reduction (US $170 vs. $234; p = 0.01). In multivariate models, respondents experiencing a reduction in remittances used fewer health services and medications due to cost concerns. Remittance payments from relatives resident in the United States are a major source of income for chronically ill individuals in Latin America. Most recipients of remittances reported a reduction during the financial downturn that affected their access to care.

Access to mobile communication technology and willingness to participate in automated telemedicine calls among chronically ill patients in Honduras.

OBJECTIVES: patients in underdeveloped countries may be left behind by advances in telehealthcare. We surveyed chronically ill patients with low incomes in Honduras to measure their use of mobile technologies and willingness to participate in mobile disease management support. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 624 chronically ill primary care patients in Honduras were surveyed. We examined variation in telephone access across groups defined by patients' sociodemographic characteristics, diagnoses, and access to care. Logistic regression was used to identify independent correlates of patients' interest in automated telephonic support for disease management. RESULTS: participants had limited education (mean 4.8 years), and 65% were unemployed. Eighty-four percent had telephone access, and 78% had cell phones. Most respondents had voicemail (61%) and text messaging (58%). Mobile technologies were particularly common among patients who had to forego clinic visits and medications due to cost concerns (each p < 0.05). Most patients (>80%) reported that they would be willing to receive automated calls focused on appointment reminders, medication adherence, health status monitoring, and self-care education. Patients were more likely to be willing to participate in automated telemedicine services if they had to cancel a clinic appointment due to transportation problems or forego medication due to cost pressures. CONCLUSIONS: even in this poor region of Honduras, most chronically ill patients have access to mobile technology, and most are willing to participate in automated telephone disease management support. Given barriers to in-person care, new models of mobile healthcare should be developed for chronically ill patients in developing countries.

Comparison of three methods for diabetes screening in a rural clinic in Honduras.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate two alternatives to the fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test for diabetes screening in Latin America. METHODS: Eight hundred adults without diabetes were recruited in a primary care clinic in Honduras. An equation-based screening formula, incorporating a random capillary glucose test and other risk factors, was used for initial screening. All patients with a screening-based probability of diabetes > 20%, plus one-fifth of those with a probability < 20%, were asked to return for FPG and point-of-care hemoglobin A1c (POC-A1c) tests. An FPG > 126 milligrams per deciliter and a POC-A1c > 6.5% were used as gold standards to assess the performance of the screening equation. The association between the POC-A1c and the FPG tests was examined as were patient factors associated with failure to return for follow-up and variation in diabetes risk across subgroups. RESULTS: The screening equation had excellent test characteristics compared with FPG and POC-A1c. Using the FPG gold standard, the POC-A1c had a sensitivity of 77.8% and a specificity of 84.9%. With an A1c cutoff of 7%, POC-A1c specificity increased to 96.2%. Thirty-four percent of patients asked to return for follow-up testing failed to do so. Those who failed to return were more likely to be men and to have hypertension. CONCLUSIONS: Both the screening equation and POC-A1c are reasonable alternatives to an FPG test for identifying patients with diabetes. Given the barriers to currently recommended screening procedures, these options could have important public health benefits in Latin America.

Comparison of three methods for diabetes screening in a rural clinic in Honduras / Comparación de tres métodos para el tamizaje de la diabetes en un consultorio rural en Honduras

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate two alternatives to the fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test for diabetes screening in Latin America. METHODS: Eight hundred adults without diabetes were recruited in a primary care clinic in Honduras. An equation-based screening formula, incorporating a random capillary glucose test and other risk factors, was used for initial screening. All patients with a screening-based probability of diabetes > 20 percent, plus one-fifth of those with a probability < 20 percent, were asked to return for FPG and point-of-care hemoglobin A1c (POC-A1c) tests. An FPG > 126 milligrams per deciliter and a POC-A1c > 6.5 percent were used as gold standards to assess the performance of the screening equation. The association between the POC-A1c and the FPG tests was examined as were patient factors associated with failure to return for follow-up and variation in diabetes risk across subgroups. RESULTS: The screening equation had excellent test characteristics compared with FPG and POC-A1c. Using the FPG gold standard, the POC-A1c had a sensitivity of 77.8 percent and a specificity of 84.9 percent. With an A1c cutoff of 7 percent, POC-A1c specificity increased to 96.2 percent. Thirty-four percent of patients asked to return for follow-up testing failed to do so. Those who failed to return were more likely to be men and to have hypertension. CONCLUSIONS: Both the screening equation and POC-A1c are reasonable alternatives to an FPG test for identifying patients with diabetes. Given the barriers to currently recommended screening procedures, these options could have important public health benefits in Latin America.

OBJETIVO: Evaluar dos alternativas a la prueba de glucemia en ayunas para el tamizaje de la diabetes en América Latina. MÉTODOS: Se seleccionaron 800 adultos sin diabetes que acudían a un dispensario de atención primaria en Honduras. Para el tamizaje inicial se utilizó una fórmula de tamizaje mediante la aplicación de ecuaciones, que incluía una prueba aleatoria de la concentración de glucosa capilar y otros factores de riesgo. A todos los pacientes cuyos tamizajes revelaron una probabilidad de diabetes > 20 por ciento, y a una quinta parte de los pacientes con una probabilidad < 20 por ciento, se les solicitó que regresaran para un examen de glucemia en ayunas y para una de glucohemoglobina (HbA1c) en el lugar de atención. Se utilizaron los siguientes criterios de referencia para evaluar el desempeño de la ecuación del tamizaje: glucemia en ayunas > 126 mg por decilitro y HbA1c > 6,5 por ciento. Se analizó la asociación entre las prueba de HbA1c y la de glucemia en ayunas, así como los factores de los pacientes asociados con faltas a las citas de seguimiento y la variación del riesgo de diabetes a través de los subgrupos. RESULTADOS: La ecuación de tamizaje presentó excelentes características de análisis en comparación con el examen de glucosa en ayunas y con la prueba de HbA1c. Usando el criterio de referencia del examen de glucosa en ayunas, el HbA1c mostró una sensibilidad de 77,8 por ciento y una especificidad de 84,9 por ciento. Con un límite de A1c de 7 por ciento, la especificidad de la prueba de HbA1c aumentó a 96,2 por ciento. No se presentaron para el seguimiento de la prueba 34 por ciento de los pacientes a quienes se les solicitó que regresaran. La probabilidad de no regresar para el seguimiento fue mayor en hombres y que tenían hipertensión. CONCLUSIONES: Tanto la ecuación de tamizaje como la prueba HbA1c son alternativas razonables al examen de glucosa en ayunas. Teniendo en cuenta las barreras actuales a la aplicación de los procedimientos de tamizaje recomendados, estas opciones podrían representar beneficios importantes para la salud pública en América Latina.

Validation of a type 2 diabetes screening tool in rural Honduras.

OBJECTIVE: To validate a low-cost tool for identifying diabetic patients in rural areas of Latin America. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A regression equation incorporating postprandial time and a random plasma glucose was used to screen 800 adults in Honduras. Patients with a probability of diabetes of > or =20% were asked to return for a fasting plasma glucose (FPG). A random fifth of those with a screener-based probability of diabetes <20% were also asked to return for follow-up. The gold standard was an FPG > or =126 mg/dl. RESULTS: The screener had very good test characteristics (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve = 0.89). Using the screening criterion of > or =0.42, the equation had a sensitivity of 74.1% and specificity of 97.2%. CONCLUSIONS: This screener is a valid measure of diabetes risk in Honduras and could be used to identify diabetic patients in poor clinics in Latin America.