Measurement of kinetic isotope effects on peptide hydroxylation using MALDI-MS.

Primary kinetic isotope effects (KIEs) provide unique insight into enzymatic reactions, as they can reveal rate-limiting steps and detailed chemical mechanisms. HIF hydroxylases, part of a family of 2-oxoglutarate (2OG) oxygenases are central to the regulation of many crucial biological processes through O2-sensing, but present a challenge to monitor due to the large size of the protein substrate and the similarity between native and hydroxylated substrate. MALDI-TOF MS is a convenient tool to measure peptide masses, which can also be used to measure the discontinuous kinetics of peptide hydroxylation for Factor Inhibiting HIF (FIH). Using this technique, rate data can be observed from the mole-fraction of CTAD and CTAD-OH in small volumes, allowing noncompetitive H/D KIEs to be measured. Slow dCTAD substrate leads to extensive uncoupling of O2 consumption from peptide hydroxylation, leading to enzyme autohydroxylation, which is observed using UV-vis spectroscopy. Simultaneously measuring both the normal product, CTAD-OH, and the uncoupled product, autohydroxylated enzyme, the KIE on the microscopic step of hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) can be estimated. MALDI-MS analysis is a strong method for monitoring reactions that hydroxylate peptides, and can be generalized to other similar reactions, and simultaneous kinetic detection of branched products can provide valuable insight on microscopic KIEs at intermediate mechanistic steps.

Kinetic Studies of the Hydrogen Atom Transfer in a Hypoxia-Sensing Enzyme, FIH-1: KIE and O2 Reactivity.

Cellular hypoxia plays a crucial role in tissue development and adaptation to pO2. Central to cellular oxygen sensing is factor-inhibiting HIF-1α (FIH), an α-ketoglutarate (αKG)/non-heme iron(II)-dependent dioxygenase that hydroxylates a specific asparagine residue of hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α). The high KM(O2) and rate-limiting decarboxylation step upon O2 activation are key features of the enzyme that classify it as an oxygen sensor and set it apart from other αKG/Fe(II)-dependent dioxygenases. Although the chemical intermediates following decarboxylation are presumed to follow the consensus mechanism of other αKG/Fe(II)-dependent dioxygenases, experiments have not previously demonstrated these canonical steps in FIH. In this work, a deuterated peptide substrate was used as a mechanistic probe for the canonical hydrogen atom transfer (HAT). Our data show a large kinetic isotope effect (KIE) in steady-state kinetics (Dkcat = 10 ± 1), revealing that the HAT occurs and is partially rate limiting on kcat. Kinetic studies showed that the deuterated peptide led FIH to uncouple O2 activation and provided the opportunity to spectroscopically observe the ferryl intermediate. This enzyme uncoupling was used as an internal competition with respect to the fate of the ferryl intermediate, demonstrating a large observed KIE on the uncoupling (Dk5 = 1.147 ± 0.005) and an intrinsic KIE on the HAT step (Dk > 15). The close energy barrier between αKG decarboxylation and HAT distinguishes FIH as an O2-sensing enzyme and is crucial for ensuring substrate specificity in the regulation of cellular O2 homeostasis.

Surface-Modified Macrophages Facilitate Tracking of Breast Cancer-Immune Interactions.

The immune system has been found to play key roles in cancer development and progression. Macrophages are typically considered to be pro-inflammatory cells but can also facilitate pro-oncogenic activities via associations with tumors and metastases. The study of macrophages and their interactions within the context of cancer microenvironments is stymied by the lack of a system to track them. We present a cell-based strategy for studying cancer-immune cell interactions by chemically modifying the surfaces of macrophages with fluorophores. Two widely used methods are employed, affecting cell surface proteins and glycans via NHS-ester and Staudinger ligation reactions, respectively. We show that these modifications do not interfere with macrophage responses to chemoattractants and that interactions with cancer cells can be readily monitored. This work describes the development of macrophage-based imaging agents for tumor detection and assessment of interactions between immune cells and cancers.

Resolving the IQ paradox: heterosis as a cause of the Flynn effect and other trends.

IQ test scores have risen steadily across the industrialized world ever since such tests were first widely administered, a phenomenon known as the Flynn effect. Although the effect was documented more than 2 decades ago, there is currently no generally agreed-on explanation for it. The author argues that the phenomenon heterosis represents the most likely cause. Heterosis, often referred to as hybrid vigor, is a genetic effect that results from matings between members of genetically distinct subpopulations, such as has been occurring in human populations through the breakup of small, relatively isolated communities owing to urbanization and greater population mobility. In Part 1 of the article, empirical findings are listed that are consistent with a heterosis hypothesis but render other hypotheses either implausible or very difficult to test. In Part 2, a formal model of the process of heterosis is presented. The goal of the modeling is to develop a quantitatively rigorous method for estimating the potential contribution of heterosis in the Flynn effect, as well as trends observed in other heritable traits and conditions.