Acoustic analysis and mood classification of pain-relieving music.

Listening to preferred music (that which is chosen by the participant) has been shown to be effective in mitigating the effects of pain when compared to silence and a variety of distraction techniques. The wide range of genre, tempo, and structure in music chosen by participants in studies utilizing experimentally induced pain has led to the assertion that structure does not play a significant role, rather listening to preferred music renders the music "functionally equivalent" as regards its effect upon pain perception. This study addresses this assumption and performs detailed analysis of a selection of music chosen from three pain studies. Music analysis showed significant correlation between timbral and tonal aspects of music and measurements of pain tolerance and perceived pain intensity. Mood classification was performed using a hierarchical Gaussian Mixture Model, which indicated the majority of the chosen music expressed contentment. The results suggest that in addition to personal preference, associations with music and the listening context, emotion expressed by music, as defined by its acoustical content, is important to enhancing emotional engagement with music and therefore enhances the level of pain reduction and tolerance.

An observational investigation of poker style and the five-factor personality model.

Little empirical investigation has been made of the relationship between personality and gambling play style. In an observation of on-table poker behavior, this study classified 44 players competing in an amateur league (43 male; mean age 32) according to two main dimensions of play style; tight or loose and aggressive or passive. Superstitious beliefs towards the game were additionally measured. The NEO-PI-R questionnaire (Costa and McCrae, Revised NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO-five factor inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual, 1992) was used to measure personality according to the five-factor model. Results showed players with superstitious beliefs to be significantly higher in neuroticism and lower in conscientiousness and than those with no superstitious beliefs. Results approaching significance showed players adopting an aggressive style to be higher in extraversion than passive players and superstitious players to be lower in extraversion than non-superstitious players. Analysis of play style according to age of player revealed a significantly higher mean age among loose compared to tight players. Implications of results concerning validity of these style classifications and potential development in future work are discussed.

Qualitative research on pain.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This review brings together developments over the past year in pain research using qualitative methodologies. In line with the goals of the current biopsychosocial model of pain, such a research framework offers in-depth understanding of the experience of pain within its cultural, familial and socioeconomic environmental context. RECENT FINDINGS: Using 'qualitative' and 'pain' as title and keyword Medline and CSA database searches, the pain literature revealed four main areas where qualitative studies have contributed significantly to knowledge development. These are: general chronic pain care: perspectives of patients and practitioners; pain experience across the lifespan; psychosocial aspects of back pain; and experience of underresearched conditions. SUMMARY: The detailed insight into subjective experiences of the pain sufferer or healthcare provider offered by qualitative research can make important contributions to evaluating and improving practice and also in theory development.

A comparison of the effects of preferred music, arithmetic and humour on cold pressor pain.

Research studies of 'audioanalgesia', the ability of music to affect pain perception, have significantly increased in number during the past two decades. Listening to preferred music in particular may provide an emotionally engaging distraction capable of reducing both the sensation of pain itself and the accompanying negative affective experience. The current study uses experimentally induced cold pressor pain to compare the effects of preferred music to two types of distracting stimuli found effective within the previous studies; mental arithmetic, a cognitive distraction, and humour, which may emotionally engage us in a similar manner to music. Forty-four participants (24 females, 20 males) underwent three cold pressor trials in counterbalanced order. The Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task provided the cognitive distraction and a choice was given from three types of audiotaped stand-up comedy. Participants provided their own preferred music. A circulating and cooling water bath administered cold pressor stimulation. Tolerance time, pain intensity on visual analogue scale and the pain rating index and perceived control were measured. Preferred music listening was found to significantly increase tolerance in comparison to the cognitive task, and significantly increase perceived control in comparison to humour. Ratings of pain intensity did not significantly differ. The results suggest preferred music listening to offer effective distraction and enhancement of control as a pain intervention under controlled laboratory conditions.

An experimental investigation of the effects of preferred and relaxing music listening on pain perception.

This study investigates the effects of music listening on perception and tolerance of experimentally induced cold pressor pain. Fifty-four participants (34 females, 20 males) each underwent 3 cold pressor trials while listening to (a) white noise, (b) specially designed relaxation music, and (c) their own chosen music. Tolerance time, pain intensity on visual analog scale, and the pain rating index of the McGill Pain Questionnaire and perceived control over the pain were measured in each condition. While listening to their own preferred music, male and female participants tolerated the painful stimulus significantly longer than during both the relaxation music and control conditions. However, only female participants rated the intensity of the pain as significantly lower in the preferred music condition. Both male and female participants reported feeling significantly more control when listening to their preferred music. It is suggested that personal preference is an influential factor when considering the efficacy of music listening for pain relief.

Temperature and the cold pressor test.

UNLABELLED: As a method of experimental pain induction, the cold pressor test is thought to mimic the effects of chronic conditions effectively. A survey of previous studies using the cold pressor, however, revealed a lack of standardization and control of water temperature, questioning comparability and reliability. This study reports the influence of temperature on pain tolerance and intensity by using a commercially available circulating water bath. Twenty-six participants (12 men, 14 women) underwent 4 cold pressor trials with temperature order counterbalanced across 1 degrees C, 3 degrees C, 5 degrees C, and 7 degrees C, temperatures representative of the range used in previous literature. After each cold immersion participants rated pain intensity on a visual analogue scale and the McGill Pain Questionnaire. Tolerance times were recorded for each trial. Significant main effects of temperature were found for tolerance time, with higher temperatures resulting in longer times, and pain intensity, with lower temperatures resulting in higher intensities. Gender differences were found, with men tolerating the stimulus for significantly longer than women. It was concluded that small differences in water temperature have a significant effect on pain intensity and tolerance time. The use of cold pressor equipment that ensures a precise constant temperature of circulating water is necessary to ensure comparable and reliable results. PERSPECTIVE: The cold pressor method of experimental pain induction has been widely used in the evaluation of psychological and physiological pain treatments. This article highlights the need for clear methodologic guidelines for the technique and demonstrates that very minor changes in experimental protocol can produce significant differences.