ABSTRACT
The effectiveness of messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines, especially those designed for COVID-19, relies heavily on sophisticated delivery systems that ensure efficient delivery of mRNA to target cells. A variety of nanoscale vaccine delivery systems (VDSs) have been explored for this purpose, including lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), liposomes, and polymeric nanoparticles made from biocompatible polymers such as poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), as well as viral vectors and lipid-polymer hybrid complexes. Among these, LNPs are particularly notable for their efficiency in encapsulating and protecting mRNA. These nanoscale VDSs can be engineered to enhance stability and facilitate uptake by cells. The choice of delivery system depends on factors like the specific mRNA vaccine, target cell types, stability requirements, and desired immune response. In this review, we shed light on recent advances in delivery mechanisms for self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) vaccines, emphasizing groundbreaking studies on nanoscale delivery systems aimed at improving the efficacy and safety of mRNA/saRNA vaccines.
Subject(s)
Vaccines , mRNA Vaccines , RNA , RNA, Messenger/genetics , RNA, Messenger/metabolism , PolymersABSTRACT
Breast cancer is considered as the second major cause of death among women with a high mortality rate worldwide. The exceptionally fast rate of metastasis, the emergence of drug-resistant mechanisms, and the occurrence of inadvertent side effects by cytotoxic chemotherapies often make conventional chemotherapy and immunotherapy treatments ineffective. Similar to other solid tumours, breast cancer can develop unique cellular and molecular characteristics forming an atypical permissive tumour microenvironment (TME). Due to the unique features of TME, cancer cells can further proliferate and coadapt with the stromal cells and evade immunosurveillance. Breast cancer cells aberrantly abundantly express various pieces of molecular machinery (the so-called oncomarkers) in favour of their survival, progression, metastasis, and further invasion. Such overexpressed oncomarkers can be exploited in the detection and targeted therapy of cancer. Among breast cancer oncomarkers, epidermal growth factor receptors, particularly HER2, are considered as clinically valid molecular targets not only for the thorough diagnosis but also for the targeted therapy of the disease using different conventional and advanced nanoscale treatment modalities. This review aims to elaborate on the recent advances in terms of targeted therapy of HER2-positive breast cancer, and discuss various types of multifunctional nanomedicines/theranostics, and antibody-/aptamer-drug conjugates.
