Novel p53 target genes secreted by the liver are involved in non-cell-autonomous regulation.

The tumor-suppressor p53 is a transcription factor that prevents cancer development and is involved in regulation of various physiological processes. This is mediated both by induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis and by controlling the expression of a plethora of target genes, including secreted proteins. It has been demonstrated that p53 may exert its effect in non-cell-autonomous manner by modulating the expression of genes that encode for secreted factors. In this study, we utilized our microarray data to identify and characterize novel p53 target genes expressed in human liver cells and associated with steroid hormones processing and transfer. We identified the steroid hormones binding factors, sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG) and cytochrome P450 family 21 subfamily A polypeptide 2, as novel p53 target genes. Their expression and secretion was increased following p53 activation in various hepatic cells. We observed that p53 wild-type mice exhibited higher levels of CBG compared with their p53 null counterparts. We demonstrated that the induction of the steroid hormones binding factors can be mediated by binding to specific p53 responsive elements within their promoters. In addition, utilizing conditioned medium experiments we have shown that p53-dependent induction of SHBG secretion from liver cells enhances apoptosis of breast cancer cells. Moreover, depletion of SHBG abolished the induction of breast cancer cells death. The newly identified p53 target genes suggest a novel non-cell-autonomous tumor-suppressive regulation mediated by p53 that is central for maintaining organism homeostasis.

The onset of p53 loss of heterozygosity is differentially induced in various stem cell types and may involve the loss of either allele.

p53 loss of heterozygosity (p53LOH) is frequently observed in Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) patients who carry a mutant (Mut) p53 germ-line mutation. Here, we focused on elucidating the link between p53LOH and tumor development in stem cells (SCs). Although adult mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) robustly underwent p53LOH, p53LOH in induced embryonic pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) was significantly attenuated. Only SCs that underwent p53LOH induced malignant tumors in mice. These results may explain why LFS patients develop normally, yet acquire tumors in adulthood. Surprisingly, an analysis of single-cell sub-clones of iPSCs, MSCs and ex vivo bone marrow (BM) progenitors revealed that p53LOH is a bi-directional process, which may result in either the loss of wild-type (WT) or Mut p53 allele. Interestingly, most BM progenitors underwent Mutp53LOH. Our results suggest that the bi-directional p53LOH process may function as a cell-fate checkpoint. The loss of Mutp53 may be regarded as a DNA repair event leading to genome stability. Indeed, gene expression analysis of the p53LOH process revealed upregulation of a specific chromatin remodeler and a burst of DNA repair genes. However, in the case of loss of WTp53, cells are endowed with uncontrolled growth that promotes cancer.

p53 is required for brown adipogenic differentiation and has a protective role against diet-induced obesity.

Proper regulation of white and brown adipogenic differentiation is important for maintaining an organism's metabolic profile in a homeostatic state. The recent observations showing that the p53 tumor suppressor plays a role in metabolism raise the question of whether it is involved in the regulation of white and brown adipocyte differentiation. By using several in vitro models, representing various stages of white adipocyte differentiation, we found that p53 exerts a suppressive effect on white adipocyte differentiation in both mouse and human cells. Moreover, our in vivo analysis indicated that p53 is implicated in protection against diet-induced obesity. In striking contrast, our data shows that p53 exerts a positive regulatory effect on brown adipocyte differentiation. Abrogation of p53 function in skeletal muscle committed cells reduced their capacity to differentiate into brown adipocytes and histological analysis of brown adipose tissue revealed an impaired morphology in both embryonic and adult p53-null mice. Thus, depending on the specific adipogenic differentiation program, p53 may exert a positive or a negative effect. This cell type dependent regulation reflects an additional modality of p53 in maintaining a homeostatic state, not only in the cell, but also in the organism at large.

p53 counteracts reprogramming by inhibiting mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition.

The process of somatic cell reprogramming is gaining increasing interest as reprogrammed cells are considered to hold a great therapeutic potential. However, with current technologies this process is relatively inefficient. Recent studies reported that inhibition of the p53 tumor suppressor profoundly facilitates reprogramming and attributed this effect to the ability of p53 to restrict proliferation and induce apoptosis. Given that mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition (MET) was recently shown to be necessary for reprogramming of fibroblasts, we investigated whether p53 counteracts reprogramming by affecting MET. We found that p53 restricts MET during the early phases of reprogramming and that this effect is primarily mediated by the ability of p53 to inhibit Klf4-dependent activation of epithelial genes. Moreover, transcriptome analysis revealed a large transcriptional signature enriched with epithelial genes, which is markedly induced by Klf4 exclusively in p53(-/-) cells. We also found that the expression of the epithelial marker E-Cadherin negatively correlates with p53 activity in a variety of mesenchymal cells even before the expression of reprogramming factors. Finally, we demonstrate that the inhibitory effect of p53 on MET is mediated by p21. We conclude that inhibition of the p53-p21 axis predisposes mesenchymal cells to the acquisition of epithelial characteristics and renders them more prone to reprogramming. Our study uncovers a novel mechanism by which p53 restrains reprogramming and highlights the role of p53 in regulating cell plasticity.

Mutant p53(R175H) upregulates Twist1 expression and promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition in immortalized prostate cells.

A mutation within one allele of the p53 tumor suppressor gene can inactivate the remaining wild-type allele in a dominant-negative manner and in some cases can exert an additional oncogenic activity, known as mutant p53 'gain of function' (GOF). To study the role of p53 mutations in prostate cancer and to discriminate between the dominant-negative effect and the GOF activity of mutant p53, we measured, using microarrays, the expression profiles of three immortalized prostate epithelial cultures expressing wild-type, inactivated p53 or mutated p53. Analysis of these gene expression profiles showed that both inactivated p53 and p53(R175H) mutant expression resulted in the upregulation of cell cycle progression genes. A second group, which was upregulated exclusively by mutant p53(R175H), was predominantly enriched in developmental genes. This group of genes included the Twist1, a regulator of metastasis and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Twist1 levels were also elevated in metastatic prostate cancer-derived cell line DU145, in immortalized lung fibroblasts and in a subset of lung cancer samples, all in a mutant p53-dependent manner. p53(R175H) mutant bearing immortalized epithelial cells showed typical features of EMT, such as higher expression of mesenchymal markers, lower expression of epithelial markers and enhanced invasive properties in vitro. The mechanism by which p53(R175H) mutant induces Twist1 expression involves alleviation of the epigenetic repression. Our data suggest that Twist1 expression might be upregulated following p53 mutation in cancer cells.