The fundamental motor skill proficiency among Polish primary school-aged children: A nationally representative surveillance study.

OBJECTIVES: With the premise that physical education classes should promote physical activity by teaching and learning fundamental motor skills, this study aimed to evaluate the fundamental motor skill proficiency of primary school students and determine the level of achievement of established learning outcomes for fundamental motor skills, as specified in the Polish National Physical Education Curriculum. DESIGN AND METHODS: A cross-sectional design was used for this study. The sample consisted of 2605 children and adolescents enrolled in grades 1-3 (ages 7-9, n = 1165), 4-6 (ages 10-12, n = 837), and 7-8 (ages 13-14, n = 603), including 1353 boys and 1252 girls. The Fundamental Motor Skills in Sport test, a qualitative and process-oriented assessment tool, was used to evaluate fundamental motor skills. The Fundamental Motor Skills in Sport test evaluates the following movement skills: hurdles, jumping rope, forward roll, ball bouncing, ball throwing and catching, and kicking and stopping a ball. RESULTS: The desired level of overall fundamental motor skill proficiency was achieved by only 2 % of students. An elementary level of fundamental motor skill proficiency was demonstrated by an additional 3.5 % of students. Further, the results showed that only 10-30 % of students had achieved mastery or were close to achieving mastery in a given fundamental motor skill. The skill with the lowest level of proficiency was jumping rope, which only 11 % of students had mastered or were near to mastering. CONCLUSIONS: The present study of a large, nationally representative sample of primary school students in Poland indicates that the vast majority (approximately 94 %) of them demonstrated insufficient fundamental motor skill proficiency. This may greatly hinder effective, safe, and healthy participation in lifelong physical activity.

The fus test: a promising tool for evaluating fundamental motor skills in children and adolescents.

Fundamental motor skills (FMS) are essential for enjoyable, confident and skillful participation in physical activity across the lifespan. Due to the alarming low level of FMS proficiency in children and adolescents worldwide, the development of motor competency is an urgent issue for physical education. The promotion and implementation of a systematic process of teaching and learning FMS should be a physical education priority. Accordingly, effective assessment tools for evaluating FMS should be adopted or developed. Because FMS assessment for both children and adolescents need further effective solutions, the primary aim of this study was to develop the new age-related test of FMS (Fundamental Motor Skills in Sport test, in Polish: Test Fundamentalnych Umiejetnosci Ruchowych w Sporcie, FUS). The secondary aim of this study was to establish validity and inter-rater, intra-rater, test-retest reliabilities and internal consistency of the FUS test. The FUS test involves six sport skill-based tasks: hurdling, jumping rope, forward roll, ball bouncing, throwing and catching a ball, and kicking and stopping a ball. Two hundred sixty-four Polish students in grades 1-3 (7-9 yrs; n = 81), 4-6 (10-12 yrs; n = 89) and 7-8 (13-14 yrs; n = 94), including 139 girls and 125 boys completed the FUS test. The content validity index for all items was notably high. Both inter-rater and intra-rater reliability showed substantial to almost perfect agreement, with observed agreements for FUS skills between 78.5 and 93.1%. Ball bouncing had a moderate correlation with the forward roll and throwing and catching, while other correlations were low or insignificant. ICC values, ranging from 0.95 to 0.97, confirmed excellent test-retest reliability. The results of our study provide evidence that the FUS test is valid, reliable, and feasible to administer in school settings. Therefore, this tool test has the potential to support deliberate practice and improve motor competence by providing a standardized and structured approach to measuring FMS among school-aged children and adolescents.

Anaerobic Variables As Specific Determinants of Functional Classification in Wheelchair Basketball.

Every parasport is currently encouraged to consider evidence-based classification to develop their respective classification system. Therefore, the aims of this study were to: (1) assess the relationship between trunk function and anaerobic power determining proficiency in wheelchair basketball, and (2) define "natural classes" in wheelchair basketball based on anaerobic power. Fifty-nine elite players (representing five national teams) were divided into four main functional classes: Group 1 (n=17), Group 2 (n=14), Group 3 (n=16), Group 4 (n=12). They performed the 6x10s Anaerobic Power Test using an arm crank ergometer. Average values of mean power, peak power, relative mean power, relative peak power, and power decrement were calculated for the 6x10s and 3x10s tests. The Spearman's correlation matrix revealed significant correlations between classes and values recorded in the 6x10s test. This confirmation between anaerobic power and players' classification endorses the division of players into different classes. Furthermore, cluster analysis (with fair quality) divided players into two "natural classes". The first resulting class was mainly formed of participants from Group 1 (71%). An important complement to this research could be to consider wheelchair acceleration and the volume of trunk action in wheelchair basketball classification.

Sports Performance Tests for Amputee Football Players: A Scoping Review.

BACKGROUND: This scoping review aims to identify sports performance tests for amputee football players and to critically analyze the methodological quality, validation data, reliability, and standardization of sport-specific tests to indicate the best-fitting tests. METHODS: Electronic database searches were conducted between January 2019 and October 2021. Twelve articles met the inclusion criteria. Qualitative assessment of each study was conducted by STROBE checklist. RESULTS: Twenty-nine sports performance tests were identified. No sports performance test fully met all three criteria associated with the qualitative assessment of tests. The critical appraisal of the articles demonstrates a gap in study design, settings, and main results description. Some inconsistencies were found in the methodological descriptions of tests assessing the same motor skill. A STROBE score of 13 points was considered a satisfactory score for the article (it was obtained by 8 of the 12 studies). The weakest point of the analyzed studies was the description of how the test group size was accessed and later obtained. CONCLUSIONS: No test was found that was simultaneously presented as valid, reliable, and standardized. The authors can recommend the use of the two-sports performance tests that are the closest to ideal: the L test and the YYIRT1.

Challenges and opportunities in wheelchair basketball classification- A Delphi study.

The International Paralympic Committee (IPC) mandates Paralympic Sports to develop evidence-based classification systems that allocate athletes into 'classes' according to the impact of their impairment on sport-specific performance. In wheelchair-basketball, a panel of classifiers assesses athlete's performance through observation. One key barrier to evidence-based classification is the absence of defined eligible impairments, including clear guidelines on how to assess them and their impact on wheelchair basketball performance. This study aims to reach expert consensus on issues specific to wheelchair basketball that can benefit from evidence-based classification. It offers recommendations for refining the classification manual, thus improving adherence to the IPC classification code. A three-round Delphi study was conducted with 29 experts in wheelchair basketball. The experts agreed with the new definition for the aim of wheelchair basketball classification, which is in line with the IPC code. Cases identified as having the highest risk for disagreement between classifiers included classifying players with upper limb deficiency or with impaired coordination. The panel failed to agree on changing the classification procedures and on defining the eligible impairment list. This study identifies issues specific to wheelchair basketball classification to be addressed in future research. Additional discussions need to take place to promote further resolution.

Application of the arm-cranking 30-second Wingate Anaerobic Test (the WAnT) to assess power in amputee football players.

PURPOSE: The aim of this work was to determine anaerobic performance in male amputee football players considering types and levels of limb impairment, playing position, anthropometric parameters, and comparing the findings to reference values. Relationship between parameters in the laboratory anaerobic test and the handgrip test was checked. METHODS: The 30-second Wingate Anaerobic Test (peak power, mean power, relative peak power, relative mean power, time to achieve peak power, fatigue index) on the arm-crank ergometer (LODE ANGIO), the FUTREX 6100 (Futrex, Gaithersburg, USA) and the handgrip test were used in amputee football players (n = 23). Anthropometric measurements were collected. RESULTS: There were no differences in anaerobic results between players considering types and levels of limb impairment. Forwards had significantly higher relative mean and peak power ( p = 0.049, d = 0.82; p = 0.049, d = 0.81), and lower amputation-adjusted body mass index ( p = 0.001, d = 1.50) than defenders. For peak power, 19 out 23 achieved, and for relative peak power, 22 out 23 achieved results from "average" to "elite". Peak power strongly correlated to handgrip strength results. CONCLUSIONS: Amputee football requires a high level of power from players. Maintaining appropriate body composition is important for amputee football players to have better anaerobic performance during the game. The 30-second Wingate Anaerobic Test can be used to assess anaerobic performance in AF players. Sport-specific anaerobic performance laboratory tests and field-based tests using in indirect upper limbs' peak power monitoring would be beneficial for coaches.

Anaerobic performance among children with spina bifida.

BACKGROUND: Children and adolescents with spina bifida demonstrate less physical activity. Most of them are wheelchair users. It is important to control their physical fitness for instance their anaerobic performance. They need anaerobic performance to daily activities like transfers that require short and high intensity movements. The aim of this study was to assess anaerobic performance among children with spina bifida and to evaluate their results in relation to normative values from able-bodied peers, as well as to find appropriate, easy and feasible field-based tests measuring anaerobic performance of children with spina bifida in non-laboratory settings. METHODS: Ninety-five children and adolescents with spina bifida were divided according to gender and age (four male and four female groups) and performed the 30-second Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT), the handgrip test and the chest pass test. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, the Kruskal-Wallis test, the Mann-Whitney U-test, the Pearson correlation (P<0.05) and Effect Size were applied in this study. RESULTS: Differences in MP, PP, rMP and rPP between age groups were found. A significant and strong correlation of the 30-second WAnT results (MP, PP) with the handgrip test and the chest pass test was found (P<0.01; r>0.7). CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, anaerobic performance of children with spina bifida varies depending on the age group and is "very poor" compared to anaerobic performance of their able-bodied peers. The chest pass test may be a good non-laboratory test to be used to indirectly assess anaerobic performance of children with spina bifida.

Physiological parameters depending on two different types of manual wheelchair propulsion.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare aerobic parameters in the multistage field test (MFT) in hand rim wheelchair propulsion and lever wheelchair propulsion. METHODS: Twenty-one men performed MFT using two different types of propulsion, i.e., lever and hand rim wheelchair propulsion. The covered distance and physiological variables (oxygen uptake (VO2), minute ventilation (VE), carbon dioxide output (VCO2), respiratory coefficient (RQ), and heart rate (HR)) were observed. Physiological variables were measured with Cosmed K5 system. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, t-test, Wilcoxon test and effect sizes (ESs) were used to assess differences. Statistical significance was set at p < .05. RESULTS: A significantly longer distance was observed in lever wheelchair propulsion than in hand rim wheelchair propulsion (1,194 and 649 m, respectively). VO2max and RQ were higher in hand rim wheelchair propulsion. All physiological variables for the last (fifth) level of the test in hand rim propulsion were significantly higher than in lever wheelchair propulsion. ES was large for each observed difference. CONCLUSION: The lever wheelchair propulsion movement is less demanding than hand rim wheelchair propulsion and longer distances can be achieved by the user. There is a need to check lever wheelchair propulsion in different types of field tests.

Comparison of muscle activity during hand rim and lever wheelchair propulsion over flat terrain.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to compare the activity of upper limb muscles during hand rim wheelchair propulsion and lever wheelchair propulsion at two different velocity levels. METHODS: Twenty male volunteers with physical impairments participated in this study. Their task was to push a lever wheelchair and a hand rim wheelchair on a mechanical wheelchair treadmill for 4 minutes at a speed of 3.5 km/h and 4.5 km/h in a flat race setting (conditions of moving over flat terrain). During these trials, activity of eight muscles of upper limbs were examined using surface electromyography. RESULTS: The range of motion in the elbow joint was significantly higher in lever wheelchair propulsion (59.8 ± 2.43°) than in hand rim wheelchair propulsion (43.9 ± 0.26°). Such values of kinematics resulted in a different activity of muscles. All the muscles were more active during lever wheelchair propulsion at both velocity levels. The only exceptions were extensor and flexor carpi muscles which were more active during hand rim wheelchair propulsion due to the specificity of a grip. In turn, the examined change in the velocity (by 1 km/h) while moving over flat terrain also caused a different EMG timing of muscle activation depending on the type of propulsion. CONCLUSIONS: Lever wheelchair propulsion seems to be a good alternative to hand rim wheelchair propulsion owing to a different movement technique and a different EMG timing of muscle activity. Therefore, we believe that lever wheelchair propulsion should serve as supplement to traditional propulsion.

Reliability of measurement of active trunk movement in wheelchair basketball players.

The study aim was to assess the reliability to active trunk movements measurement in four sitting positions in wheelchair basketball players and to check their trunk movements in these positions. Eighteen volunteer wheelchair basketball athletes, with a minimum of five years' training experience, were asked to perform the maximum range of active trunk movement in three planes in four sitting positions (in a sports wheelchair with straps, without straps, on a table with feet on the floor, on a table without foot support). The range of movement was measured by the Kinect for Windows V2 sensor twice (with one-week interval). To assess the reliability, different statistical methods were used for each movement: significance of differences between the results (p-value), interclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and minimal detectable change (MDC). The limits of agreement analysis (LOA) were calculated. Differences between trunk movements in four positions were checked by the MANOVA (Wilk's Lambda and ETA2 were calculated if data were normally distributed). The significance level was set at α < .05. Friedman ANOVA and non-parametric Wilcoxon test with the Bonferroni correction were applied when data were not normally distributed. The significance level after Bonferroni correction was set at α < .013 (α = p/k, where p = .05, k-number of positions = 4). The measurement of active trunk movement in each plane was reliable (p > .05, no differences between the results, "very good"ICC, between .96-.99). In the position with straps, the trunk movement was significantly bigger than in other positions (p < .05), except for the position without straps (p > .05). The Kinect for Windows V2 sensor measured active trunk movement in a reliable manner and it can be recommended as a reliable tool for measuring trunk function. Utilizing straps by wheelchair basketball players increases their trunk movement.

Wheelchair Basketball Competition Heart Rate Profile According to Players' Functional Classification, Tournament Level, Game Type, Game Quarter and Playing Time.

Heart rate is a popular parameter observed in team sports to plan training sessions with regard to load and sport specificity. Wheelchair basketball is an intermittent team game for physically impaired players. The study aim was to define heart rate profile of wheelchair basketball players in terms of their functional classification (category A: 1.0-2.5 points, category B: 3.0-4.5 points), tournament level (championships and friendly games), game type (close, balanced, and unbalanced), game quarter (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th) and playing time (40-59%, 60-79%, and 80-100% in a quarter). Heart rate of 18 wheelchair basketball players was monitored in 22 games in four different tournaments, i.e., European Championships 2017, World Championships 2018, two friendly international tournaments of national teams (2017 and 2018). Heart rate (HRmean, HRpeak, %HRpeak, HRR, and %HRR) was monitored by Polar Team Pro (Kempele, Finland) during playing time on the court. Timeouts, quarter breaks, a half break, time on a bench were not taken into account in HR monitoring. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, the Mann-Whitney U test and the Kruskal-Wallis test were used. Fourteen players divided according to the classification into category A and B were included in the final calculations (n = 457 cases). Significantly higher HRmean, %HRpeak, HRpeak, and %HRR were noted among category B players, and higher %HRpeak and %HRR among category A players at the highest tournament level compared to friendly games. There were significant differences in %HRR and the percentage of time spent in HR zone I between the players with different playing time (40-59% versus 60-79%) in category B. No significant differences in HR were noted between four quarters. Among category A players, differences in HR in zone II were observed. Among category B players, statistically significant differences in % HRpeak, the percentage of time spent in HR zones I, II, III, and %HRR between close, balanced and unbalanced games were found. In conclusion, the intermittent nature of wheelchair basketball was confirmed. Monitoring heart rate in a game could be helpful in creating exercises with proper loads for better physical preparation of wheelchair basketball players. High intensity training sessions would be more beneficial in preparing players for game demands.

Accuracy of Impedance Cardiography for Hemodynamic Assessment During Rest and Exercise in Wheelchair Rugby Players.

Purpose: The aim of the study was to analyze the accuracy of impedance cardiography (ICG) for hemodynamic assessment in wheelchair rugby players during rest and exercise. Method: The study included 21 players (mean age 33.0 ± 5.4, 86% male) with posttraumatic tetraplegia. ECG, echocardiography, and gas exchange analysis during rest and exercise were used to obtain heart rate (HR), stroke volume (SV), and cardiac output (CO) for comparison with PhysioFlow®. Results: There was a good correlation between reference methods and ICG for HR, SV, CO at rest and CO at peak exercise (r = 0.69-0.77, p < .001) and a very good correlation for peak HR (r = 0.91, p < .0001). ICG overestimated SV at rest, CO at rest, and peak CO, which resulted in low intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC = 0.250 and 0.570). Conclusions: ICG can serve as a good estimate of basic hemodynamic parameters during rest and exercise in wheelchair rugby players but overestimates stroke volume and cardiac output.

Laboratory and Non-laboratory Assessment of Anaerobic Performance of Elite Male Wheelchair Basketball Athletes.

Wheelchair basketball is an adaptive Paralympic sport and wheelchair basketball players are under classification in sport. Coaches are looking for useful assessment tools (field-based tests) to evaluate players' anaerobic performance (anaerobic capacity). The aim of this study was to assess the validity of field-based tests for anaerobic performance evaluation for two functional categories of wheelchair basketball players and to create a calculator to predict mean or peak power on the basis of the selected field-based test results. Sixty-one elite male wheelchair basketball players performed the Wingate Anaerobic Test and the following field-based tests: 3 m sprint, 5 m sprint, 10 m sprint, 20 m sprint, basketball chest pass test, medicine ball (3 kg) chest pass test, bilateral handgrip, 3-6-9 m drill test, 30-s sprint test, agility drill test and 10 × 5 m sprint test. The participants were divided into two functional categories: A (classes from 1.0 to 2.5; n = 29) and B (classes from 3.0 to 4.5; n = 32) according to the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation rules. The large effect size (Cohen's d > 0.5) was found in four tests (3 m sprint, 5 m sprint, basketball chest pass test, medicine ball chest pass test; ES 0.90, 0.53, -0.96, -1.05). There were differences between category A and category B players regarding mean power, peak power and relative peak power. Peak power correlated with four tests, while mean power correlated with eight out of eleven tests. The formulas for estimating peak power or mean power in category A and B players were created separately. All the analyses confirmed that 3 m sprint, 5 m sprint, 10 m sprint, 20 m sprint, agility drill test, bilateral handgrip, 3-6-9 m drill test, 30-s sprint test, basketball chest pass test and medicine ball chest pass test are valid for non-laboratory anaerobic performance evaluation. Using the four formulas as a tool to predict mean or peak power on the basis of the selected field-based test results and functional categories will be helpful and will allow coaches and players to prepare pre-season, post-season and in-season conditioning exercises in wheelchair basketball.

Propriedades psicométricas da versão espanhola da Referee Self-Efficacy Scale (REFS) / Sistema de clasificación de voleibol sentado: La perspectiva de los atletas / Sistema de qualicação para o vôlei: a perspectiva dos atletas

The aim of this study was to evaluate the classiffication system in sitting volleyball (SV) based on athletes' opinions on different competitive level. During World Sitting Volleyball Championships in 2014, 187 participants and 35 players in Polish and Lithuanian SV leagues participated in this study. They completed the survey regarding the current classiffication system in SV. The classiffication procedure was assessed as positive by 74% of elite athletes and 94.1% league athletes. Elite athletes see a need to include functional procedures, and in contrast to league athletes, they assessed the current classification system positively. Many of the players see a need to change the current classiffication system from medical to functional or mixed procedures. League athletes in contrast to elite athletes agree to include able-bodied people to compete on the court with people with physical impairments

El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el sistema de clasificación en voleibol sentado (SV) en función de las opiniones de los atletas en diferentes niveles competitivos. Durante el Campeonato Mundial de Voleibol Sentado en 2014, 187 participantes y 35 jugadores de las ligas SV polacas y lituanas participaron en este estudio. Completaron la encuesta sobre el sistema de clasificación actual en SV. El procedimiento de clasificación fue evaluado como positivo por el 74% de los atletas de elite y el 94.1% de los atletas de liga. Los atletas de elite ven la necesidad de incluir procedimientos funcionales, y en contraste con los atletas de la liga, evaluaron positivamente el sistema de clasificación actual. Muchos de los jugadores ven la necesidad de cambiar el sistema de clasificación actual de procedimientos médicos a procedimientos funcionales o mixtos. Los atletas de la liga, en contraste con los atletas de elite, aceptan incluir personas sanas para competir en la cancha con personas con discapacidades físicas

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o sistema de classificação em voleibol sentado (SV) baseado na opinião de atletas em diferentes níveis competitivos. Durante o Campeonato do Mundo de Voleibol em 2014, participaram neste estudo 187 participantes e 35 jogadores nas ligas da Polónia e da Lituânia. Eles completaram a pesquisa sobre o sistema de classificação atual em SV. O procedimento de classificação foi avaliado como positivo por 74% dos atletas de elite e 94,1% dos atletas da liga. Os atletas de elite veem a necessidade de incluir procedimentos funcionais e, em contraste com os atletas da liga, avaliaram positivamente o sistema de classificação atual. Muitos dos jogadores vêem a necessidade de mudar o sistema de classificação atual de procedimentos médicos para procedimentos funcionais ou mistos. Atletas da liga, em contraste com atletas de elite, concordam em incluir pessoas fisicamente capazes para competir na quadra com pessoas com deficiências físicas

Evaluation of Game Performance in Elite Male Sitting Volleyball Players.

The aims of the current study were (a) to analyze the differences in game performances of sitting volleyball athletes representing the different types of disabilities and (b) to assess whether the seated position vertical reach is one of the crucial factors in the game performance level of sitting volleyball athletes. One hundred male athletes from various national teams participating in the European Championships in Sitting Volleyball (2009) took part in this study. The athletes were categorized according to type of disability and the results of the vertical reach in a seated position. Thirtysix games were analyzed using the Game Performance Sheet for Sitting Volleyball. Twenty-three game performance parameters were studied. In addition, the sum and effectiveness of attacks, blocks, block services, services, ball receiving, and defensive actions were calculated. The main results indicated significant differences between athletes with minimal disability and athletes with single amputations from above the knee in the level of defensive performances and the summation of defensive actions. There was also a significant difference between athletes in relation to their vertical reach during activity and attacking actions, blocks, and ball receiving. In addition, there were strong relationships between the players' vertical reach scores and their activity and effectiveness in sitting volleyball. In conclusion, the accuracy of the World Organization Volleyball for Disabled classification systems for sitting volleyball players was confirmed. There is a strong relationship between players' vertical reach and their effectiveness in sitting volleyball.

Comparison of Aerobic Performance Testing Protocols in Elite Male Wheelchair Basketball Players.

In wheelchair sports, aerobic performance is commonly assessed with the use of an arm crank ergometer (ACE), a wheelchair ergometer (WCE) or a wheelchair treadmill (WCT). There are different protocols to identify peak oxygen uptake in wheelchair sports; however, only a few protocols have been applied to evaluate these conditions in wheelchair basketball players. The purpose of this study was to compare physiological responses during maximal exercise testing with the use of ACE and WCT in wheelchair basketball players. Twelve elite male wheelchair basketball players participated in this study. The research was performed during a training camp of the Polish National Wheelchair Basketball Team. The study participants were divided into two functional categories: A (players with class 1.0 - 2.5) and B (players with class 3.0 - 4.5). Two main maximal exercise tests, i.e. wheelchair treadmill stress test (WCT test) and arm crank ergometer stress test (ACE test) were used to evaluate aerobic performance of the players. There were no statistically significant differences in aerobic tests between the players from both groups. The comparison of results achieved in two aerobic tests performed on WCT and ACE did not reveal any significant differences between the analyzed variables (peak heart rate (HRpeak), peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), minute ventilation (VE), anaerobic threshold (AT), lactate concentration (LApeak), and a drop in lactate concentration (%LA)). Strong correlations between results achieved in WCT and ACE tests were found for VO2peak, VE and LApeak. The main conclusion of the study is that both WCT and ACE tests may be useful when determining aerobic capacity of wheelchair basketball players. Moreover, both protocols can be used by athletes regardless of their functional capabilities and types of impairment.

Bilateral Coordination of Children who are Blind.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the bilateral coordination in children and adolescents with visual impairments aged 7 to 18 years in comparison to their sighted peers. An additional objective was to identify the influence of sex and age on bilateral coordination. Seventy-five individuals with congenital severe visual impairment (40 girls and 35 boys) comprised the visually impaired group. The Sighted group comprised 139 youth without visual impairment. Subtest 4 of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency was administered to test bilateral coordination. To analyze the effect of the independent variables in the results obtained in the Subtest 4, four linear regression models were applied according to group and sex. The results indicated that severe visual impairment and lack of visual sensation had a negative effect on the development of participants' bilateral coordination, which however did not depend on sex or age.

Relationships Between Anaerobic Performance, Field Tests and Game Performance of Sitting Volleyball Players.

The aim of this study was to evaluate relationships between anaerobic performance, field tests, game performance and anthropometric variables of sitting volleyball players. Twenty elite Polish sitting volleyball players were tested using the 30 s Wingate Anaerobic Test for arm crank ergometer and participated in six physical field tests. Heights in position to block and to spike, as well as arm reach were measured. Players were observed during the game on the court in terms of effectiveness of the serve, block, attack, receive and defense. Pearson analysis and the Spearman's rank correlation coefficient were used. The strongest correlations were found between the chest pass test and mean power and peak power (r=.846; p=.001 and r=.708; p=.0005, respectively), and also between the T-test and peak power (r= -.718; p=.001). Mean power correlated with the 3 m test (r= -.540; p=.014), the 5 m test (r= -.592; p=.006), and the T-test (r= -.582; p=.007). Peak power correlated with the 3 m test (r= -.632; p=.003), the 5 m test (r= -.613; p=.004), speed & agility (r= -.552; p=.012) and speed & endurance (r=-.546; p=.013). Significant correlations were observed between anthropometric parameters and anaerobic performance variables (p≤.001), and also between anthropometric parameters and field tests (p≤.05). Game performance and physical fitness of sitting volleyball players depended on their anthropometric variables: reach of arms, the position to block and to spike. The chest pass test could be used as a non-laboratory field test of anaerobic performance of sitting volleyball players.

Game Performance Evaluation in Male Goalball Players.

Goalball is a Paralympic sport exclusively for athletes who are visually impaired and blind. The aims of this study were twofold: to describe game performance of elite male goalball players based upon the degree of visual impairment, and to determine if game performance was related to anthropometric characteristics of elite male goalball players. The study sample consisted of 44 male goalball athletes. A total of 38 games were recorded during the Summer Paralympic Games in London 2012. Observations were reported using the Game Efficiency Sheet for Goalball. Additional anthropometric measurements included body mass (kg), body height (cm), the arm span (cm) and length of the body in the defensive position (cm). The results differentiating both groups showed that the players with total blindness obtained higher means than the players with visual impairment for game indicators such as the sum of defense (p = 0.03) and the sum of good defense (p = 0.04). The players with visual impairment obtained higher results than those with total blindness for attack efficiency (p = 0.04), the sum of penalty defenses (p = 0.01), and fouls (p = 0.01). The study showed that athletes with blindness demonstrated higher game performance in defence. However, athletes with visual impairment presented higher efficiency in offensive actions. The analyses confirmed that body mass, body height, the arm span and length of the body in the defensive position did not differentiate players' performance at the elite level.

Laboratory and Field-Based Evaluation of Short-Term Effort with Maximal Intensity in Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities.

Results of previous studies have not indicated clearly which tests should be used to assess short-term efforts of people with intellectual disabilities. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate laboratory and field-based tests of short-term effort with maximal intensity of subjects with intellectual disabilities. Twenty four people with intellectual disability, who trained soccer, participated in this study. The 30 s Wingate test and additionally an 8 s test with maximum intensity were performed on a bicycle ergometer. The fatigue index, maximal and mean power, relative maximal and relative mean power were measured. Overall, nine field-based tests were conducted: 5, 10 and 20 m sprints, a 20 m shuttle run, a seated medicine ball throw, a bent arm hang test, a standing broad jump, sit-ups and a hand grip test. The reliability of the 30 s and 8 s Wingate tests for subjects with intellectual disability was confirmed. Significant correlation was observed for mean power between the 30 s and 8 s tests on the bicycle ergometer at a moderate level (r >0.4). Moreover, significant correlations were indicated between the results of laboratory tests and field tests, such as the 20 m sprint, the 20 m shuttle run, the standing long jump and the medicine ball throw. The strongest correlation was in the medicine ball throw. The 30 s Wingate test is a reliable test assessing maximal effort in subjects with intellectual disability. The results of this research confirmed that the 8 s test on a bicycle ergometer had a moderate correlation with the 30 s Wingate test in this population, thus, this comparison needs further investigation to examine alternativeness of the 8 s to 30 s Wingate tests. The non-laboratory tests could be used to indirectly assess performance in short-term efforts with maximal intensity.