Professional perspective of vision therapy worldwide among optometrists and ophthalmologists.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Perception of optometrists and ophthalmologists of vision therapy (VT) as well as their methods for performing the sessions is of great importance for understanding the problems that professionals face and what should be improved in their clinical practice. BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to determine the perception of VT and protocols used by eye care professionals globally. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was performed among eye care professionals internationally. The participants completed via online (Google Forms) a questionnaire of 40 questions on their perception and clinical practice of VT. The survey only permitted one answer per email address and was only collected if professionals gave their consent to participate. RESULTS: A total of 205 professionals from 43 countries answered the questionnaire (171 optometrists and 34 ophthalmologists). Accommodation and convergence problems were the main indication reported for VT (47.8%), followed by amblyopia (26.3%). The principal negative factor associated to VT was the limited number of professionals dedicated to this field (55.6%). The most common program of VT was the combination of VT sessions at home and at office (85.5%), with a great variability in terms of duration. Few professionals made use of the new technologies when programming VT, such as eye trackers (2.7%) or virtual reality (6.4%). European professionals surveyed had a more negative perception of VT (p < 0.031). CONCLUSIONS: Eye care professionals globally perceive VT as a scientifically based procedure. Overall, they believe that it has low recognition and prestige, especially ophthalmologists. A great variability in the programming of VT sessions was found, which highlights the need for standardised protocols that professionals could follow in their clinical practice.

Impact of Immersive Virtual Reality on the Binocular and Accommodative Function: A Systematic Review About Literature and Its Current Limitations.

The use of virtual reality (VR) is expected to increase exponentially in next years, and it is important to study whether VR can generate oculomotor, accommodative and binocular alterations in future users. Visual symptoms after the immersion inside VR have been widely reported, specifically in the case of simulator sickness, but the causes are still in study. Some authors have reported changes on accommodative and binocular parameters, but differences between studies made conclusions difficult. PURPOSE: The aim of this study is to analyze the scientific literature about the effect of VR on the accommodative and binocular function of healthy subjects with both normal visual conditions and binocular anomalies assessing the quality of the existing studies to detect possible limitations and improve future study designs. METHODS: A search was performed in PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus databases with the search equation (Virtual reality OR head-mounted displays) AND (accommodation OR accommodative) AND (vergence* OR convergence OR divergence OR binocular vision). A limitation was made in terms of the date of publication from 2010 onwards, identifying a total of 198 publications. Finally, 15 publications were included in the quality analysis. After a comprehensive analysis of the publications, a quality assessment was performed using a Quality Appraisal Checklist. RESULTS: Research on effects of immersive VR on accommodative and binocular function to this date was focused on quasi-experimental pre-post studies well written and with results supporting their conclusions. Unfortunately, this scientific evidence provides heterogeneous outcomes, being the results in some cases even contradictory. CONCLUSIONS: Information about the devices, its interpupillary distance adjustment, the software characteristics and type of task performed by users should be better controlled in future studies. Additionally, participants accommodative and binocular baseline characteristics should be better analyzed to obtain firm conclusions about the consequences of the proper immersive VR experience on visual function.

Analysis of Treatment Discontinuation in Orthokeratology: Studying Efficacy, Safety, and Patient Adherence Over Six Months.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy, safety, and participant compliance of orthokeratology treatment for the correction of myopic refractive errors over a six-month prospective study and to define the potential reasons for early treatment discontinuation. METHODS: A total of 32 participants with low-to-moderate myopia were fitted with the spherical model of corneal refractive therapy (CRT) orthokeratology lenses (Paragon Vision Sciences) and followed over six months, with specific attention to alterations in refractive error, corneal topography, and epithelial thickness. Concurrently, participant feedback and reasons for any treatment discontinuation were documented. RESULTS: Significant changes in refractive error and in corneal topography were observed, with approximately 50% of the refractive error being corrected on the first night of use and 100% by the first two weeks (P<0.001). Central epithelial thickness experienced substantial thinning, reducing to 15.65±4.49 µm (67.38%) (P<0.001) after 6 months of lens use. Six participants withdrew from this study for varied reasons, including unmet visual expectations and difficulty adhering to the lens-wearing regimen. Notably, the dropout group exhibited higher baseline low-order aberrations and less prolate corneas than those who persisted with the treatment (P<0.05). CONCLUSION: Orthokeratology with CRT is efficacious and safe for the correction of low-to-moderate myopia in adults, but a portion of patients discontinue the treatment in the first 6 months of contact lens wear. Special care should be taken when recommending orthokeratology in patients with higher levels of myopia and corneas with less prolate shape, providing more realistic expectations and even changing to dual axis or more sophisticated designs.

Pilot Study Assessing the Safety and Acceptance of a Novel Virtual Reality System to Improve Visual Function.

PURPOSE: To assess the feasibility of the clinical use of a novel Virtual Reality (VR) training software designed to be used for active vision therapy in amblyopic patients by determining its preliminary safety and acceptance on the visual function of healthy adults. METHODS: Pilot study enrolling 10 individuals (3 men, 7 women, mean age: 31.8 ± 6.5 years) with a best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) of ≥ .90 (decimal) in both eyes were evaluated before and after 20 minutes of exposure to the NEIVATECH VR system using the HTC Vive Pro Eye head mounted display. Visual function assessment included near (40 cm) and distance (6 m) cover test (CT), stereopsis, binocular accommodative facility (BAF), near point of convergence (NPC), near point of accommodation (NPA), accommodative-convergence over accommodation (AC/A) ratio and positive and negative fusional vergences. Safety was assessed using the VR Sickness Questionnaire (VRSQ) and acceptance using the Technology Acceptance Model ;(TAM). Changes in all these variables after VR exposure were analyzed. RESULTS: Short-term exposure to the NEIVATECH VR system only induced statistically significant changes in distance phoria (p = .016), but these changes were not clinically relevant. No significant changes were observed in VRSQ oculo-motricity and disorientation scores after exposure (p = .197 and .317, respectively). TAM scores showed a good acceptance of the system in terms of perceived enjoyment and perceived ease of use, although some concerns were raised in relation to the intention-to-use domain. CONCLUSION: Exposure to the NEIVATECH VR system does not seem to adversely affect the visual function in healthy adults and its safety and acceptance profile seems to be adequate for supporting its potential use in other populations, such as amblyopic patients.

Real-Time Object Detection for Autonomous Solar Farm Inspection via UAVs.

Robotic missions for solar farm inspection demand agile and precise object detection strategies. This paper introduces an innovative keypoint-based object detection framework specifically designed for real-time solar farm inspections with UAVs. Moving away from conventional bounding box or segmentation methods, our technique focuses on detecting the vertices of solar panels, which provides a richer granularity than traditional approaches. Drawing inspiration from CenterNet, our architecture is optimized for embedded platforms like the NVIDIA AGX Jetson Orin, achieving close to 60 FPS at a resolution of 1024 ×1376 pixels, thus outperforming the camera's operational frequency. Such a real-time capability is essential for efficient robotic operations in time-critical industrial asset inspection environments. The design of our model emphasizes reduced computational demand, positioning it as a practical solution for real-world deployment. Additionally, the integration of active learning strategies promises a considerable reduction in annotation efforts and strengthens the model's operational feasibility. In summary, our research emphasizes the advantages of keypoint-based object detection, offering a practical and effective approach for real-time solar farm inspections with UAVs.

Orthokeratology effect on the corneoscleral profile: Beyond the bull's eye.

PURPOSE: To assess the impact of 3 months of orthokeratology (ortho-k) contact lenses (CLs) for myopia correction on the corneoscleral profile, as changes in scleral geometry could serve as indirect evidence of alteration in the corneal biomechanical properties. METHODS: Twenty subjects (40 eyes) were recruited to wear ortho-k lenses overnight; however, after discontinuation (two CL fractures, one under-correction and two non-serious adverse events), 16 subjects (31 eyes) finished a 3-month follow-up. Corneoscleral topographies were acquired using the Eye Surface Profiler (ESP) system before and after 3 months of lens wear. Steep (SimKs) and flat (SimKf) simulated keratometry and scleral sagittal height measurements for 13-, 14- and 15-mm chord lengths were automatically calculated by the ESP software. Additionally, sagittal height and slope were calculated in polar format from 21 radii (0-10 mm from the corneal apex) at 12 angles (0-330°). Linear mixed models were fitted to determine the differences between visits. RESULTS: SimKs and SimKf were increased significantly (p ≤ 0.02). The sagittal height in polar format increased significantly (p = 0.046) at a radius of 2.5 mm for 150°, 180°, 210° and 240° orientations and at a radius of 3.0 mm for 210°. Additionally, the slope in polar format significantly decreased (p ≤ 0.04) at radii ranges of 0.0-0.5, 0.5-1.0 and 1.0-1.5 mm for multiple angles and at a radii range of 5.0-5.5 mm for 90°. It also increased significantly (p ≤ 0.045) at a radii range of 1.5-2.0 mm for 30° and at radii ranges of 2.0-2.5, 2.5-3.0 and 3.0-3.5 mm for multiple angles. No significant changes were found for any parameter measured from the scleral area. CONCLUSIONS: Three months of overnight ortho-k lens wear changed the central and mid-peripheral corneal geometry as expected, maintaining the peripheral cornea and the surrounding sclera stability.

Safety, Efficacy, and Visual Performance of an Orthokeratology Lens with Increased Compression Factor.

The aim was to evaluate the safety, efficacy, and visual performance of an orthokeratology lens with an increased compression factor (ICF) of 1.25 D in a 3-month follow-up. Thirty-six myopic patients (5 males and 31 females; 24.2 ± 5.8 years) were fitted with Alexa AR (Tiedra Farmacéutica S.L., Madrid, Spain) contact lenses (CLs) and twenty participants finished the follow-up. Visual acuity (VA), subjective refraction, primary spherical and primary coma aberrations, keratometry, central pachymetry, and ocular surface evaluation were performed at baseline and after 1 night, 1 week, 1 month, and 3 months of CL wear. The differences among visits were analyzed using a repeated-measures analysis of variance or the Friedman test. The spherical equivalent decreased (p ≤ 0.005), and the uncorrected VA improved (p < 0.001) until the first week. Corneal and ocular aberrations showed a significant increase (p ≤ 0.02). A significant decrease (p < 0.001) was found for keratometry values. No significant changes were observed in either central pachymetry or ocular surface parameters among study visits. In conclusion, an orthokeratology CL with an ICF of 1.25 D provides good safety, efficacy, and visual performance in a 3-month follow-up. Seven days of orthokeratology wear are enough to achieve the full myopic compensation, resulting in satisfactory VA.

Reliability and Agreement of Keratometry Measurements Obtained With Eye Surface Profilometry and Partial Coherence Interferometry.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to assess the repeatability of keratometry parameters obtained using the Eye Surface Profiler (ESP) system and their agreement with the IOL Master 500 device. METHODS: Seventy-one eyes of 71 healthy participants were evaluated. Three repeated measurements were performed using the ESP system. Simulated keratometry in the flat (SimKf) and steep (SimKs) meridians, astigmatism, and axis were obtained. The same parameters were measured using the IOL Master 500 device. The J0 and J45 vector components of the astigmatism were calculated. The intrasession repeatability was analyzed using within-subject SD (Sw) and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Agreement was assessed using paired statistical tests and the Bland-Altman method. RESULTS: The Sw was 0.07 mm, 0.04 mm, 0.51 D, 0.33 D, and 0.22 D, and the ICC was 0.96, 0.98, 0.74, 0.61, and 0.55 for SimKf, SimKs, astigmatism, J0, and J45, respectively. The mean difference and limits of agreement when comparing the ESP system with the IOL Master 500 device were 0.37 mm (0.08/0.66) for SimKf ( P < 0.001), 0.18 mm (0.00/0.35) for SimKs ( P < 0.001), -0.93 D (-2.42/0.56) for astigmatism ( P < 0.001), 0.51 D (-0.22/1.24) for J0 ( P < 0.001), and 0.06 D (-0.48/0.60) for J45 ( P = 0.09). CONCLUSIONS: The ESP system provides consistent values for simulated keratometry, showing moderate consistency for astigmatism parameters. Contact lens practitioners should be aware that the ESP system and IOL Master 500 device provide different simulated keratometry from a clinically viewpoint.

Professional perspective and practice patterns of vision therapy in Spain.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE: An analysis of the professional perspective of vision therapy (VT) by eye care professionals allows understanding the current controversies about this therapeutic option of which aspects can be improved for its correct application in clinical practice. BACKGROUND: The aim of the current study was to analyse the perception of VT and the clinical protocols in this context followed among optometrists and ophthalmologists in Spain. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey among Spanish optometrists and ophthalmologists. Google Forms tool was used to collect data via an online questionnaire divided into 4 sections (40 questions): consent to participate, demographic characteristics, opinion of the professional perspective of VT, and protocols. Only one submission from each email address was permitted by the survey tool. RESULTS: A total of 889 Spanish professionals answered (age, 25-62 years): 848 optometrists (95.4%) and 41 ophthalmologists (4.6%). VT was considered as a scientifically-based procedure by 95.1% of participants, but its recognition and prestige was considered as low. The main cause reported for this was bad reputation or perception of placebo therapy (27.3%). The main indication of VT according to the surveyed professionals was convergence and/or accommodation problems (72.4%). Significant differences were found in the perception of VT among optometrists and ophthalmologists (p ≤ 0.027). A total of 45.3% of professionals reported performing VT in their current clinical practice. A combination of training sessions in office and home was regularly prescribed by 94.5% of them, but with significant variability in the duration of such sessions. CONCLUSIONS: VT is perceived by Spanish optometrists and ophthalmologists as a therapeutic option with scientific basis, but with limited recognition and prestige, although with more negative perception among ophthalmologists. A great variability was found in the clinical protocols followed between specialists. Future efforts should be focused on creating internationally recognised evidence-based protocols for this therapeutic option.

Efficacy of Soft Contact Lenses for Myopia Control: A Systematic Review.

PURPOSE: To summarize and analyze critically the scientific evidence focused on the effectiveness of the use of hydrophilic contact lenses (HCLs) in myopia control, as well as their impact on visual quality and the involvement on the accommodative and binocular function. METHODS: This systematic review was developed selecting all original studies which evaluated HCLs for myopia control with follow-up of at least 1 year. Eligible randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were retrieved from PubMed MEDLINE and Scopus. Methodological quality of the studies was assessed using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) for RCTs. RESULTS: The search provided a total of 276 articles, selecting 13 according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The majority of studies evaluating the effectiveness of HCL showed a good efficacy in myopia progression, providing a good quality of vision. The quality of these studies was found to be suitable according to the CASP tool. The accommodative and binocular function with these lenses was evaluated in few studies, reporting a trend to an increase in the accommodative response and exophoria in near vision, while maintaining good level of stereopsis. Aberrometry and pupillometry were only studied in one trial, in which the authors did not find changes in these variables after the use of a myopia control HCL. CONCLUSIONS: There is a strong evidence about the effectiveness of different HCLs designs for slowing down myopia progression in children, providing all of them good levels of visual quality. However, there is still poor evidence about changes in accommodation and binocular function, as well as in pupil size and aberrometry with myopia control HCLs, being necessary more studies focused on this issue.

Dynamic Pupillary Response in Multiple Sclerosis Patients with and without Optic Neuritis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative disease that affects the central nervous system which produces abnormalities in visual function, as disturbed pupillary responses, even after an episode of optic neuritis (ON). The aim was to assess different parameters of the pupillary response in MS subjects with and without ON. Therefore, 24 eyes of healthy age-matched subjects were included, 22 eyes of subjects with MS (MS group), and 13 subjects with MS with previous ON (MSON group). Pupillary parameters (ratio pupil max/min; latency; velocity and duration; contraction and dilation; and amplitude of contraction) were recorded with the MYAH topographer. Statistical analysis was performed by IBM SPSS Statistics, and parametrical or non-parametrical tests were used according to the normality of the data. MS patients did not significantly differ from healthy patients in any of the parameters analyzed (p > 0.05). Only patients with previous ON were different from healthy patients in the amplitude (40.71 ± 6.73% vs. 45.22 ± 3.29%, respectively) and latency of contraction (0.35 ± 0.13 s vs. 0.26 ± 0.05 s, respectively). The time to recover 75% of the initial diameter was abnormal in 9% of the MS subjects and 12% of MSON subjects. Based on the results of this study, the contraction process, especially latency and amplitude, was found to be affected in subjects with MS and previous ON. The degree of disability and the relation of the decrease in pupil response with other indicators of MS disease should be further investigated considering other comorbidities such as ON in the affection.

Contextualizing Evaluation of Performance in Volleyball: Introducing Contextual Individual Contribution Coefficients to Assess Technical Actions.

In this study, we proposed novel metrics for evaluating volleyball technical performance in relation to the action context. To assess each player's relative participation, we also introduced relative contextual coefficients. We analyzed 20 games played by the world's top eight teams during the 2019 FIVB Women's Club World Championship, using Data Volley software and Python programming. We evaluated inter- and intra-observer reliability and used binomial logistic regression models to estimate each variable's probability of having contributed to the team's set win. We calculated estimated confidence intervals, standard errors, and Wald values; and we employed Akaike's and Bayesian criteria to evaluate the model's goodness of fit. We identified optimal cut-off points using receiver operating characteristic curves, and we found that the proposed contextual evaluation coefficients prevented overestimation of a player's technical performance in uneven situations. We addressed the issue in which the winning team may be the one that scored the fewest points, and we were able to predict a team's victory with confidence. The proposed coefficients made multiple technical and contextual aspects of the game easily accessible and comprehensible, offering significant beneficial implications for coaches and players.

Binocular vision measurements with a new online digital platform: comparison with conventional clinical measures.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE: New digital systems are being developed for evaluating different aspects of the visual function, such as binocularity, and it is important to know their real performance in clinical practice in order to use them appropriately. BACKGROUND: The aim was to compare binocular vision measures obtained with an online digital platform with conventional measures using prisms and printed tests. METHODS: Prospective study enrolling 49 healthy patients (mean age: 35.5 ± 13.6 years). A complete visual examination was performed including measurement of near phoria (cover test), negative fusional vergence (NFV) and positive fusional vergence (PFV) ranges (prism bar), and stereopsis (24 patients Randot Stereo Test and 25 patients TNO Random Dot Test 19th edition). These same parameters were also measured with the Bynocs system (Kanohi Eye Pvt Ltd). Bland - Altman plots were used to analyse the agreement between methods. RESULTS: Digital measurement of near phoria was significantly lower than that obtained with the cover test, with a median difference (MD) of 4.71 (-0.07-20.07) prism dioptres (pd) (p < 0.001). No significant differences were found between Bynocs and prism bar methods in NFV break (MD 2.00, range -21-26 pd, p = 0.584) and recovery points (MD 0.00, range -16-24 pd, p = .571). Near PFV were significantly lower with Bynocs (break: MD -9.00, range -38-12 pd; recovery: MD -14.00, range -43-20 pd; p < 0.001). Bynocs stereoacuity threshold was significantly lower than that obtained with TNO (p = 0.004), but significantly higher compared to Randot (p < 0.001). Large and clinically relevant confidence intervals for the comparison between digital and conventional measures were detected in Passing-Bablok analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Digital measures of near phoria, NFV, PFV, and stereopsis with the Bynocs platform cannot be used interchangeably with conventional measures. The normal ranges of normality for this new tool are defined.

Vessel Anatomical Features of 'Picual' and 'Frantoio', Two Olive Cultivars Different in Resistance against Verticillium Wilt of Olive.

The olive tree (Olea europaea), a non-tropical woody crop that occupies the largest area in the world, is severely affected by the fungus Verticillium dahliae worldwide. In this regard, there is currently detailed information on the level of resistance to this pathogen in the main olive varieties. However, there is little information on quantitative aspects of its anatomy and on the existence of anatomical differences between varieties that could be related to the differential resistance response observed. In the present work, a quantitative study of the xylem of 'Picual', susceptible, and 'Frantoio', resistant, to V. dahliae is carried out. This study also provides quantitative data on the xylem in different areas of the plant, an aspect on which there is not much information for the olive tree. Among the parameters evaluated, it is probably the greater conductive capacity in the xylem tissue that 'Frantoio' presents, mainly due to the greater density of its vessels, which has a more relevant role in the resistance and natural recovery that this cultivar manifests to the disease. In any case, these constitutive anatomical differences, and those others that can be induced in plants during infections, should be investigated in future work that includes inoculation with the pathogen.

Randomised placebo-controlled clinical trial evaluating the impact of a new visual rehabilitation program on neuroadaptation in patients implanted with trifocal intraocular lenses.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the efficacy of a new visual training program for improving the visual function in patients implanted with trifocal intraocular lenses (IOLs). METHODS: Randomised placebo-controlled clinical trial enrolling 60 subjects (age, 47-75 years) undergoing cataract surgery with implantation of trifocal diffractive IOL. Home-based active visual training was prescribed immediately after surgery to all of them (20 sessions, 30 min): 31 subjects using a serious game based on Gabor patches (study group) and 29 using a placebo software (placebo group). Visual acuity, contrast sensitivity (CS), and perception of visual disturbances (QoV questionnaire) were evaluated before and after training. Likewise, in a small subgroup, resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) analysis was performed. RESULTS: No significant differences were found between groups in compliance time (p = 0.70). After training, only significant improvements in monocular uncorrected intermediate visual acuity were found in the study group (p ≤ 0.01), although differences between groups did not reach statistical significance (p ≥ 0.11). Likewise, significantly better binocular far CS values were found in the study group for the spatial frequencies of 6 (p = 0.01) and 12 cpd (p = 0.03). More visual symptoms of the QoV questionnaire experienced a significant change in the level of bothersomeness in the study group. Rs-fMRI revealed the presence significant changes reflecting higher functional connectivity after the training with the serious game. CONCLUSIONS: A 3-week visual training program based on the use of Gabor patches after bilateral implantation of trifocal diffractive IOLs may be beneficial for optimising the visual function, with neural changes associated suggesting an acceleration of neuroadaptation. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04985097. Registered 02 August 2021, https://clinicaltrials.gov/(NCT04985097 ).

Efficacy of Presbyopia-Correcting Contact Lenses: A Systematic Review.

PURPOSE: To analyze critically the clinical trials on presbyopia correction with contact lenses (CLs) to investigate the quality of the research performed. METHODS: A search was performed in PubMed database on clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of the presbyopia correction with different CLs, including multifocal or simultaneous vision contact lenses (MCLs). After a comprehensive analysis of the relevant publications found, quality assessment of such publications was performed by means of Critical Appraisal Skills Programme checklist tool according to the five types of evaluations: MCL versus spectacles, MCL versus pinhole CLs, MCL versus monovision, comparison between MCL designs, and MCL versus extended depth of focus CLs. RESULTS: A total of 16 clinical trials were selected for evaluation. All evaluated studies addressed a clearly focused research question and were randomized, with a crossover design in most of the cases. Blinding was not possible in all cases due to the physical appearance of some of the CLs evaluated (pinhole or hybrid designs). Most of studies analyzed reported outcomes with complete data, providing the statistical tests used and the P -values, but some of the authors did not provide the statistical power associated to the sample size evaluated. The small sample size in some trials as well as the scarce information about the effect of addition on visual performance was the main limitations found in the peer-reviewed literature revised. CONCLUSIONS: There is a high-quality scientific evidence supporting the use of presbyopia-correcting CLs, with several randomized controlled clinical trials conducted to this date.

Amblyopia Treatment through Immersive Virtual Reality: A Preliminary Experience in Anisometropic Children.

The use of digital devices provides a wide range of possibilities for measuring and improving visual function, including concepts such as perceptual learning and dichoptic therapy. Different technologies can be used to apply these concepts, including, in recent years, the introduction of virtual reality (VR) systems. A preliminary experience in treating anisometropic amblyopia through an immersive VR device and using prototype software is described. A total of 4 children were treated by performing 18 office-based sessions. Results showed that distance VA in amblyopic eyes remained constant in two subjects, whereas the younger subjects improved after the training. Near VA improved in three subjects. All subjects showed an increase in the stereopsis of at least one step, with three subjects showing a final stereopsis of a 60 s arc. A total of three subjects showed an increase of approximately 0.5 CS units for the spatial frequency of 3 cpd after the training. Results from this pilot study suggest that visual training based on perceptual learning through an immersive VR environment could be a viable treatment for improving CS, VA, and stereopsis in some children with anisometropic amblyopia. Future studies should support these preliminary results.

Low Back Pain in Cycling. Are There Differences between Road and Mountain Biking?

Low back pain (LBP) is known to affect cyclists. This study aimed to describe perceived lumbar dysfunction and compare the pain sensation in recreational cyclists who practice road and mountain biking. Forty males were randomly assigned to carry out a 3-h road cycling (RC) and mountain biking (MTB) time trial (TT) at submaximal intensity. LBP and pain pressure threshold (PPT) were measured before and after the TT. A significant increment at the LBP was found after RC TT (p < 0.001; d = 2.61), similar to MTB TT (p < 0.001; d = 2.65). However, PPT decreased after completing the RC TT (p < 0.001; d = 1.73) and after MTB TT (p = 0.024; d = 0.77). There were no differences in the LBP evolution between both interventions (p > 0.01). Low back pain perception increases with cycling in recreational cyclists. Nevertheless, this increase appears to be more related to the traits of the cyclist than the modality practiced.

Visual perception alterations in COVID-19: a preliminary study.

AIM: To compare the visual perception (color and chromatic-achromatic contrast vision) of a small cohort of COVID-19 patients at the time of infection and after 6mo with that of a healthy population matched for sex and age. METHODS: A total of 25 patients (9 females, 16 males, mean age: 54±10y) with COVID-19 hospitalized in the COVID-19 Unit of the University Clinical Hospital of Valladolid were recruited for this preliminary study. Visual perception, as determined by monocular measurement of contrast sensitivity function (CSF) and color vision was assessed in each patient using the Optopad test. The results obtained were then compared with those of a sample of 16 age- and sex-matched healthy controls (5 females, 11 males, mean age: 50±6y) in which the same measurement procedure was repeated. Statistically significant differences between groups were assessed using the Mann-Whitney U test. Measurements were repeated after a minimum follow-up period of 6mo and statistically significant differences between the two time points in each group were assessed using the Wilcoxon signed rank test. RESULTS: Discrimination thresholds (color and chromatic-achromatic contrast vision) and their corresponding sensitivity, calculated as the inverse of the discrimination threshold, were evaluated. Analysis of the data revealed higher contrast threshold results (i.e., worse contrast sensitivity) in the COVID-19 group than in the control group for all spatial frequencies studied in the Optopad-CSF achromatic test and most of the spatial frequencies studied in the Optopad-CSF chromatic test for the red-green and blue-yellow mechanisms. In addition, color threshold results in the COVID-19 group were also significantly higher (i.e., worse color sensitivity) for almost all color mechanisms studied in the Optopad-Color test. At 6mo, most of the differences found between the groups were maintained despite COVID-19 recovery. CONCLUSION: The present results provide preliminary evidence that visual perception may be impaired in COVID-19, even when the infection has passed. Although further research is needed to determine the precise causes of this finding, analysis of CSF and color vision could provide valuable information on the visual impact of COVID-19.

Modeling and Prediction of the Immediate and Short-Term Effect of Myopic Orthokeratology.

PURPOSE: To characterize the clinical changes occurring in the initial phase of the orthokeratology (OK) treatment for myopia correction, developing a model of prediction of the refractive changes in such phase. METHODS: Prospective study enrolling 64 eyes of 32 patients (range, 20-40 years) undergoing myopic OK treatment with the reverse geometry contact lens CRT (Paragon Vision Science). Changes in uncorrected visual acuity (UCVA) and best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA), refraction, corneal topography, ocular aberrations, and corneal epithelial thickness were evaluated during the first hour of OK lens wear and after 1 week of OK treatment. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to obtain a model to predict the short-term refractive effect of OK. RESULTS: The UCVA improved at each visit, reaching normal visual acuity values after a week (P<0.001) of OK treatment, which was consistent with the significant spherical equivalent (SE) reduction and central flattening (P<0.001). Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that one night change in refraction (ΔR×1N) could be predicted according to the following expression (P<0.001, R2=0.686): ΔR×1N=1.042+0.028×Age+1.014×BCET (baseline central epithelium thickness)-0.752×BKm (baseline mean keratometry)-1.405×BSE (baseline SE)+1.032×ΔR×1 h (change in SE after 1 hr of OK lens use). Similarly, a statistically relevant linear relationship was obtained for predicting the refractive change after 1 week (ΔR×1W) of OK use (P<0.001, R2=0.928): ΔR×1W=3.470-1.046×BSE-1.552×BBCVA (baseline BCVA)-0.391×BKm+0.450×ΔR×1 h. CONCLUSIONS: The immediate and short-term refractive effects of myopic OK with the reverse geometry contact lens CRT can be predicted with enough accuracy from baseline and first trial visits data.