Work Gains and Strains on Father Involvement: The Mediating Role of Parenting Styles.

The balance between work and family demands is one of the main challenges of contemporary parenting. However, most of the research has focused on mothers' perspectives, with fathers' perspectives about the links between work-family activities and father involvement, as well as the role of indirect effects, such as parenting styles, being less explored. This study aims to bridge these gaps by exploring whether work strains or gains are related to father involvement in childcare and the mediating role of parental styles, focusing on fathers' reports. Working, married fathers of preschoolers (n = 411) self-reported about work strains and gains, parental styles, and father involvement. Structural equation modeling, using maximum-likelihood estimation, provided good fit indices. Results of the bootstrap analysis revealed how fathers' gains indirectly increased involvement both in direct and indirect care through positive parental styles. Otherwise, fathers' strains at work had a negative indirect effect on direct care through negative parental styles. Findings contribute to work-family interface by showing how parental styles account for mediating environmental challenges on father involvement.

Validez y confiabilidad de la Escala de Involucramiento Parental: Actividades de cuidado y socialización en padres peruanos / Validity and reliability of the Parental Involvement Scale: Caregiving and socialization activities in Peruvian parents

Resumen El presente estudio busca obtener evidencias de validez y confiabilidad de la Escala de Involucramiento Parental: Actividades de cuidado y socialización en una muestra de padres peruanos de niños y niñas preescolares. Para ello, se realizó una traducción y armonización del lenguaje del instrumento a partir de su versión en inglés al español, para luego aplicar la nueva versión a un grupo de 420 padres y 420 madres de niños y niñas de cinco ciudades. La evidencia de la estructura interna se evaluó a través de un análisis factorial confirmatorio multigrupo, utilizando el método de máxima verosimilitud para examinar la estructura de los 26 ítems originales. Durante el análisis, se procedió a la eliminación progresiva de los ítems con bajas cargas factoriales hasta encontrar un modelo con adecuados indicadores de ajuste [x 2(531) = 822.82; p < .001; x 2/gl = 1.550; GFI = .90; CFI = .95; TLI = .94; RMSEA = .036, IC 90 % = (.031-.041), p close = 1.000, SRMR = .05]. El resultado fue una escala de 18 ítems distribuidos en las cinco dimensiones originales, cada una con confiabilidad por consistencia interna alfa de Cronbach entre .66 y .78 y coeficientes omega entre .70 y .75. La confiabilidad entre evaluadores estuvo entre .67 y .88. Los alcances y limitaciones del estudio son discutidos teniendo en cuenta la importancia de contar con instrumentos de medición del involucramiento paterno, relativo al materno, que consideren las perspectivas de padres y madres en el contexto peruano.

Abstract The present study seeks to obtain validity and reliability evidence of the Parental Involvement Scale: Care and socialization activities in a sample of Peruvian parents of preschool children. For this purpose, the instrument was translated and linguistically harmonized from its English version into Spanish and then applied to a group of 420 fathers and 420 mothers of children from five cities. Evidence of the internal structure was evaluated through a multigroup confirmatory factor analysis, using the maximum likelihood method to examine the structure of the original 26 items. Items with low factor loadings were progressively eliminated until a model with adequate fit indicators was found [x 2 (531) = 822.82; p <0,001; x 2 /gl = 1.550; GFI = .90; CFI = .95; TLI = .94; RMSEA = .036, IC del 90% (.031 - .041), p close = 1.000, SRMR = .05]. The result was a18-items scale distributed in the five original dimensions, each with Cronbach's alpha internal consistency reliability between .66 and .78 and Omega coefficients between .70 and .75. Inter-rater reliability was between .67 and .88. The scope and limitations of the study are discussed considering the relevance of having instruments to measure paternal involvement relative to maternal involvement, that consider the perspectives of fathers and mothers in the Peruvian context.

The Role of Child's Age, Sex, and Temperament in Father Involvement during the Pre-School Years.

(1) Background: The aim of the study was to explore how child's characteristics (age, sex, and temperament) were associated with father's involvement in child-related activities. In a sample of 410 bi-parental families with pre-school age children. (2) Methods: Dividing the sample into two age groups, OLS regression models were conducted for each dimension of father involvement with child characteristics as predicting variables. (3) Results: for the younger children (3 and 4 years) fathers were more involved in teaching/discipline and played with their more extroverted daughters. With older children (5 and 6 years), fathers were more involved in teaching/discipline and played when children were higher on negative-affectivity. An interaction was found with boys' higher negative-affectivity, predicting fathers' higher involvement in teaching and discipline. (4) Conclusions: Our results suggest that children's characteristics have an impact on what fathers do, particularly in a dimension salient to pre-school years such as teaching/discipline. This can help build tailored empirical-sustained programs aiming to encourage and support fathers' positive involvement.

Salivary oxytocin after play with parents predicts behavioural problems in preschool children.

BACKGROUND: Oxytocin (OXT) has attracted research interest for its potential involvement in many of the behavioural problems observed in childhood. Due to its logistical advantages, saliva is an attractive fluid to quantify neuropeptides in children. Salivary OXT has been suggested as a potential biomarker for psychopathology during childhood. However, several questions still remain about the extent to which, and under what conditions, concentrations of OXT in saliva can be reliably measured and are related to behavioural problems in preschool age children. METHODS: Seven samples of saliva from 30 preschool children (17 girls) were collected in five different days at their homes. Three of the samples were collected by the children's parents at baseline daily routine conditions, and four of the samples were collected by researchers during two home-visits: before and after two 15-minute dyadic play sessions (one with mothers and one fathers) between each individual parent and the child. Oxytocin concentrations were quantified by Radioimmunoassay with prior extraction. Children's behavioural problems were assessed by the Caregiver-Teacher Report Form (C-TRF) questionnaire, completed by the child's' preschool teacher. RESULTS: Salivary OXT measured in baseline samples could not predict any of the behavioural problems measured by the C-TRF. However, when measured after playing with parents salivary OXT showed a stronger pattern of negative correlations, specially with the depression and opposition scales of the C-TRF. Furthermore, salivary OXT was unlikely to be reliably measured using single sampling, but acceptable reliabilities were achieved when averaging several samples. Finally, the single measures of salivary OXT evoked after an episode of play with parents showed better reliabilities than collected at baseline. CONCLUSION: Measurements of OXT evoked after positive affect interactions with parents seem to capture aspects of the OXT system in young children that might be relevant for understanding the role of this system in children's social behaviour.

Early Attachment to Mothers and Fathers: Contributions to Preschoolers' Emotional Regulation.

Children acquire and develop emotional regulatory skills in the context of parent-child attachment relationships, nonetheless empirical studies have focused mainly on mother and less information is available regarding the role of both parent-child attachment relationships. Furthermore, despite its importance, there is no information regarding preschool years. This study aims to fill this gap by exploring the potential influences of both mother-child and father-child attachments on preschooler's later emotion regulation observed in the peer group. Fifty-three Portuguese nuclear families (mother, father and focal child) participated in the study; 47% of the children were boys and 53% were girls. Attachment Security was assessed at home using the Attachment Behavior Q-set when children were 3 years of age, and emotion regulation was observed in the preschool classrooms attended by the children at age 5, using the California child Q-sort to derive an Emotion Regulation Q-Scale. Results showed that the combined influence of both parent-child attachment security predicted better emotion regulation results, than did the specific contributions of each parent per se. Findings are consistent with integrative approaches that highlight the value of including both mother- and father-child attachment relationships, as well as their combined effect, when studying emotion regulation.

Convergent and Discriminant Validities of SCBE-30 Questionnaire Using Correlated Trait-Correlated Method Minus One.

Correlated trait-correlated method minus one was used to evaluate convergent and discriminant validity of Social Competence Behavior Evaluation questionnaire (Social Competence, Anger-Aggression, Anxiety-Withdrawal) between multiple raters. A total of 369 children (173 boys and 196 girls; M age = 55.85, SD age = 11.54) were rated by their mothers, fathers, and teachers. Results showed more convergence between parents than parent-teacher ratings. Mother-teacher share a common view of child behavior that is not shared with father. Parents had more difficulty distinguishing internalizing and externalizing behaviors (especially fathers). Measurement invariance across child sex was explored, results imply that differences between boys and girls were not due to measure. Girls (compare to boys) were described as more social competent by their fathers and teachers, while boys as more aggressive by mothers and teachers.

Children's Play Profiles: Contributions From Child's Temperament and Father's Parenting Styles in a Portuguese Sample.

Using a sample of Portuguese preschool-age children, we aimed to identify different play profiles based on teachers' descriptions of social and non-social behaviors, as well as characterize them in terms of children's characteristics (sex and temperament) and fathers' parenting styles (e.g., warmth and involvement or punitive strategies). The 243 children were distributed across four profiles (identified through a two-stage cluster analysis): Solitary/Reticent, Social Rough, Social, and Social Solitary. A univariate effect was found between play profiles and children's effortful control, as well as fathers' punitive strategies. In addition, a significant multivariate interaction was found between child's sex and the Solitary/Reticent and Social Rough profiles for father's punitive strategies. In this sample, children with social play profiles seem to use diverse types of behaviors during their interactions with peers and in being adjusted within the group. As children's early experiences with peers are a central context for healthy development, a better understating of the diversity of play profiles and its predictors is important for early interventions.

Examining the Factorial Structure of the Maternal Separation Anxiety Scale in a Portuguese Sample.

The increase in women's labor market participation emphasizes the importance of understanding maternal separation anxiety, that is, the unpleasant maternal emotional state, due to the actual or anticipated short-term separation from the child. Drawing on the insights of the attachment and psychoanalytic perspectives, the Maternal Separation Anxiety Scale (MSAS) was developed to overcome existing measurement gaps. However, prior research did not replicate its original three-factor structure in the contemporary context and in other cultural settings, using large samples composed of mothers of preschool children. This study aimed to examine the factorial structure of the MSAS in a sample of 597 Portuguese mothers of children aged 5-84 months who completed the questionnaire. The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) conducted in subsample 1 revealed a four-factor structure: Maternal Negative Feelings, Beliefs about Exclusive Maternal Care, Need of Proximity, and Perceptions of Separation Benefits for Children. Confirmatory factor analyses conducted in subsample 2 revealed that the original three-factor structure revealed a poor fit, whereas the four-factor solution (obtained in the EFA) revealed an acceptable fit. As in previous studies, our findings report deviations from the original three-factor structure of the MSAS. Three of the newly identified factors seem to reflect specific sub-dimensions that originally guided item development in the MSAS, namely, maternal negative feelings, maternal attitudes about the value of exclusive maternal care, and the need of proximity with the child. The last factor appears to represent a refinement of original items pertaining to perceptions about separation effects for children.

Early father-child and mother-child attachment relationships: contributions to preschoolers' social competence.

The main goal of this study was to explore the contributions of early father-child and mother-child attachment relationships to children's later social competence with their preschool peers; possible unique and shared contributions were tested. Using a multi-method design and focusing on direct observation, attachment was assessed at home at age 3 with the Attachment Behavior Q-sort (AQS) and two years later social competence was assessed at classrooms of 5-year-olds using a set of seven measurement indicators that are part of the Hierarchical Model of Social Competence. Results show that attachment to each parent made unique and significant contributions to children's social competence and suggested the possibility that each caregiver may have somewhat different patterns of influence on the different indicators of children's social competence. Findings also suggest the possibility that a secure attachment with one parent may buffer the impact of having an insecure relationship with the other. Due to sample size, these results should be seen as a starting point to generate new and larger studies.

Preditores do envolvimento paterno numa amostra de famílias portuguesas. O papel das crenças parentais / Predictors of Father's Involvement in a Sample of Portuguese families. The Role of Parenting Beliefs

Resumo O presente estudo visou analisar preditores do envolvimento paterno em atividades do dia-a-dia relacionadas com a criança, considerando a perspetiva do pai (crenças sobre o papel do pai) e testando o possível papel regulador da mãe (via crenças maternas). Foram controladas variáveis sociodemográficas dos cuidadores (e.g., habilitações) e da criança (e.g., sexo). Participaram no estudo 241 famílias nucleares (pai, mãe e criança-alvo). Análises de regressão múltipla hierárquica indicam que apenas os modelos relativos aos cuidados são significativos, e que os preditores são distintos consoante os domínios analisados. Obteve-se, ainda, um efeito de inte-ração entre as crenças maternas e o sexo da criança, indicando o potencial papel regulatório da mãe no modo como os pais estão envolvidos nos cuidados diretos às raparigas. Estes resultados colocam questões importantes para o trabalho com as famílias no sentido de promover um maior envolvimento positivo do pai.

Abstract The present study aimed to analyze predictors of father's involvement in day-to-day activities related to the child, from his perspective (beliefs about the role of the father), but also testing the regulatory role of the mother (maternal beliefs). Parents (e.g., education) and child's (e.g., sex) sociodemographic variables were controlled. Participants were 241 Portuguese bi-parental families (father, mother and target-child). Multiple hierarquical regression analyses showed that only for care the models reached significance, and that the predictors of father's involvement vary according to the domains analyzed. An interaction effect was found between mother's beliefs and child sex, suggesting that mothers have a role in the way fathers are involved in direct care with girls. These results foster important questions for interventions with families in order to promote father's positive involvement.

Mothers, fathers, sons, and daughters: Are there sex differences in the organization of secure base behavior during early childhood.

Recent empirical studies reporting sex differences in attachment relationships have prompted investigators to consider why and under what conditions such results might be observed. This study was designed to explore possibilities of identifying sex differences in the organization of attachment-relevant behavior during early childhood. Observations of 119 children (59 boys) with their mothers and (separately) with their fathers were completed and children were described using the AQS. Results indicated that girls and boys did not differ with respect to global attachment security but at more specific level analyses revealed differences between parents that reflected differences in the behaviors of girls vs. boys with mothers and fathers. Our findings contradict arguments from evolutionary psychologists claiming that sex differences in attachment organization arise during middle childhood. By adopting an attachment measure sensitive to the possibility of behavioral sex differences our data suggest that such differences may be detectable earlier in development. Moreover, these differences are subtle and nuanced and do not suggest large sex differences in attachment security per se.

Social engagement and adaptive functioning during early childhood: Identifying and distinguishing among subgroups differing with regard to social engagement.

This study tested the hypothesis that social engagement (SE) with peers is a fundamental aspect of social competence during early childhood. Relations between SE and a set of previously validated social competence indicators, as well as additional variables derived from observation and sociometric interviews were assessed using both variable-centered and person-centered approaches (N = 1453, 696 girls) in 4 samples (3 U.S.A., 1 Portuguese). Directly observed SE was positively associated with broad-band measures of socially competent behavior, peer acceptance, being a target of peers' attention, and also with broad-band personality dimensions. Using individual Q-items significantly associated with SE in 3 of our 4 samples, a hierarchical cluster analysis yielded a 5-cluster solution that grouped cases efficiently. Tests on relations between cluster membership and the set of social competence and other variables revealed significant main effects of cluster membership in the full sample and within each individual sample, separately. With the exception of tests for peer negative preference, children in the lowest SE cluster also had significantly lower overall social competence, personality functioning scores than did children in higher SE clusters. (PsycINFO Database Record

Os modelos internos dinâmicos analisados com recurso às narrativas de representação da vinculação em adultos / The internal working models analyzed using the narrative assessment of adult attachment representations / Los modelos internos dinámicos analizados mediante las narrativas de representación de apego en adultos

Este estudo analisou os modelos internos dinâmicos de mães recorrendo às Narrativas de Representação da Vinculação em Adultos (Waters & Rodrigues-Doolabh, 2004). Teve como objetivos: testar a validade interna e discriminativa do instrumento analisando, ainda, os aspectos estilísticos das narrativas produzidas por 89 mães com crianças a frequentar Creche/Jardim-de-Infância. As narrativas foram recolhidas em sessões individuais tendo sido posteriormente transcritas e cotadas por dois a três investigadores, sem conhecimento prévio sobre as famílias. Os resultados confirmam a validade do instrumento; e indicam que as mães têm conhecimento e acesso ao script de base segura, utilizando-o na produção das suas narrativas.(AU).

This study analyzed the internal working models of 89 mothers of preschool age children, using the Narrative Assessment of Adult Attachment Representations (Waters & Rodrigues-Doolabh, 2004). The goals were to test the internal and discriminant validity of the instrument, as well as the stylistic aspects of the narratives produced by the participants. The narratives were collected during individual interviews, transcribed and then coded by 2 to 3 researchers without previous knowledge of these families. Results confirm the validity of the instrument; and show that mothers have knowledge and access to the secure base script to construct their narratives.(AU).

Este estudio examinó los modelos internos dinámicos de las madres mediante las Narrativas de Representación de Apego en Adultos (Waters & Rodrigues-Doolabh, 2004). Los objetivos fueron: probar la validez interna y discriminativa del instrumento, analizando el aspecto estilístico de las narrativas producidas por 89 madres con niños que asisten a la Guardería/Jardín-de-Infancia. Las narrativas fueron recogidas en sesiones individuales y transcritas y citadas por dos o tres investigadores, sin conocimiento previo acerca de las familias. Los resultados confirman la validez del instrumento; e indican que las madres tienen el conocimiento y acceso al script de base segura, y lo utilizan para la producción de sus narrativas.(AU).

O reduzido envolvimento social: implicações para o ajustamento psicossocial de crianças em contexto pré-escolar / Low social engagement: implications for children psychosocial adjustment in the preschool context

O reduzido envolvimento social, aspeto central na definição da solidão social, foi analisado numa amostra de 337 crianças portuguesas (171 rapazes), com idades compreendidas entre os três e os cinco anos. Com base em metodologias de observação, realizadas em contexto de Jardim de infância, verificou-se que níveis reduzidos de envolvimento social estão negativamente associados a baixos níveis de competência social, de resiliência e de um elevado ego-controle. A aceitação pelos pares, o impacto e a preferência social, analisados com base nas medidas sociométricas, encontram-se, também, negativamente associados com os níveis de baixo envolvimento social. Os resultados refletem as dificuldades de ajustamento psicossocial destas crianças e enfatizam o seu potencial risco para o desenvolvimento saudável.(AU)

Low social engagement, a central feature of the definition of solitude, was examined in a sample of 337 Portuguese children (171 boys), ages ranging between 3 and 5 years. Based on observation measures, collected in school settings, Low Social Engagement was negatively associated with a broad range of adaptive outcomes, including social competence, ego-resilience as well as higher levels of ego-undercontrol. Negative associations were also found with sociometric measures of peer acceptance, social impact and preference. The results reflect these children's difficulties in the social domain and stress the potential risk factor of social solitude for their healthy development.(AU)

O reduzido envolvimento social: implicações para o ajustamento psicossocial de crianças em contexto pré-escolar / Low social engagement: implications for children psychosocial adjustment in the preschool context

O reduzido envolvimento social, aspeto central na definição da solidão social, foi analisado numa amostra de 337 crianças portuguesas (171 rapazes), com idades compreendidas entre os três e os cinco anos. Com base em metodologias de observação, realizadas em contexto de Jardim de infância, verificou-se que níveis reduzidos de envolvimento social estão negativamente associados a baixos níveis de competência social, de resiliência e de um elevado ego-controle. A aceitação pelos pares, o impacto e a preferência social, analisados com base nas medidas sociométricas, encontram-se, também, negativamente associados com os níveis de baixo envolvimento social. Os resultados refletem as dificuldades de ajustamento psicossocial destas crianças e enfatizam o seu potencial risco para o desenvolvimento saudável.

Low social engagement, a central feature of the definition of solitude, was examined in a sample of 337 Portuguese children (171 boys), ages ranging between 3 and 5 years. Based on observation measures, collected in school settings, Low Social Engagement was negatively associated with a broad range of adaptive outcomes, including social competence, ego-resilience as well as higher levels of ego-undercontrol. Negative associations were also found with sociometric measures of peer acceptance, social impact and preference. The results reflect these children's difficulties in the social domain and stress the potential risk factor of social solitude for their healthy development.

Is the secure base phenomenon evident here, there, and anywhere? A cross-cultural study of child behavior and experts' definitions.

The evolutionary rationale offered by Bowlby implies that secure base relationships are common in child-caregiver dyads and thus, child secure behavior observable across diverse social contexts and cultures. This study offers a test of the universality hypothesis. Trained observers in nine countries used the Attachment Q-set to describe the organization of children's behavior in naturalistic settings. Children (N = 547) were 10-72 months old. Child development experts (N = 81) from all countries provided definitions of optimal child secure base use. Findings indicate that children from all countries use their mother as a secure base. Children's organization of secure base behavior was modestly related to each other both within and across countries. Experts' descriptions of the optimally attached child were highly similar across cultures.

Attachment representations, sleep quality and adaptive functioning in preschool age children.

Both the attachment system and sleep are considered to be important biopsychosocial regulators of development and of adaptive functioning in children, and there is a substantial literature suggesting that the two systems may be mutually influencing. To date, however, the bulk of research attempting to link these systems has focused on infancy and the results of empirical studies are mixed. Thirty-nine preschool children participated in this study (valid sleep data for 34 cases). Attachment representations were assessed using the Attachment Story Completion Task (ASCT) and sleep was assessed using objective (i.e., actigraphy) measures. Analyses revealed that the coherence of child narratives and security scored from the ASCT were related to sleep quality indices (e.g., Sleep Activity, Wake Minutes after Sleep Onset, Sleep Efficiency). Additional analyses examined external correlates of attachment representations and tested possible interactions of attachment and sleep. No significant mediated interactions across attachment and sleep domains were found. Although the direction of effects cannot be determined, the results suggest that parent-child relationship and sleep organization are intertwined for preschool age children and the joint effects of these biopsychosocial regulators should be studied further.

Preschool children's mental representations of attachment: antecedents in their secure base behaviors and maternal attachment scripts.

This study examined the antecedents of preschool age children's mental representations of attachment, assessed using the Attachment Story Completion Task (ASCT). Antecedent predictors were maternal attachment scripts, assessed using the Attachment Script Assessment (ASA), and the child's secure base behaviors, assessed using the Attachment Q-Set (AQS). Participants were 121 mothers and their preschool children assessed in three samples (Portuguese sample, n = 31; US Midwestern sample, n = 38; US Southeastern sample, n = 52). AQS and ASA assessments were completed approximately 1.5 years before the ASCT data were collected. No cross-sample contrasts for the attachment variables were significant. Correlations and structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated that the three attachment measures were significantly associated and that both maternal secure base script knowledge and children's secure base behaviors (AQS) were uniquely and significantly associated with children's mental representations of attachment (ASCT). A test of the indirect effect between maternal scripts and child representations through children's secure base behaviors was not significant.

Secure base representations for both fathers and mothers predict children's secure base behavior in a sample of Portuguese families.

Relations between fathers' and mothers' representations of attachment (independently assessed using an attachment script representation task) and children's secure base behavior (assessed using the Attachment Q-sort; AQS) were studied in 56 Portuguese families (mean age of child = 31.9 months). Each parent's secure base script representation score predicted AQS security scores for the child with that parent at approximately equivalent degrees of association. However, both parental secure base script scores and AQS security scores were positively correlated across parents. A hierarchical regression predicting AQS security with father from both parent's scriptedness scores and from the AQS score with mother showed a unique, significant influence of father's scriptedness score and the AQS score with mother, but mother's scriptedness score did not uniquely add to the prediction. Difficult temperament was ruled out as a mediator of the cross-parent association for AQS security scores.

Maternal secure base scripts, children's attachment security, and mother-child narrative styles.

This paper reports the results of a study examining links between maternal representations of attachment, child attachment security, and mother and child narrative styles assessed in the context of reminiscences about shared experiences. Participants were 90 mother - child dyads. Child attachment security was assessed using the attachment Q-set and maternal attachment representations were measured using a recently designed instrument that assesses the script-like qualities of those representations. Analyses examined dependencies in the mother - child memory talk data and then assessed the overlap between both mother and child reminiscing styles and the attachment variables. Narrative styles of both the mothers and their children were coherent and consistent for each dyad member. Furthermore, maternal narrative style (e.g., specific and elaborative questions, using confirming evaluation comments) was significantly related to child participation in the narrative. Maternal and child attachment variables were positively and significantly correlated, and child security was positively associated with maternal narrative style. Maternal secure base scripts were also found to be significantly related to the number of references to emotions in both mother and child narratives as well as to children's overall participation in the memory talk. The pattern of results suggests that attachment representations serve as one influence on the manner(s) in which mother - child dyads think about and discuss emotion-laden content relevant to the child's personal autobiography. Furthermore, the results are consistent with the notion that the manner in which children organize their thoughts about emotion are (at least potentially) shaped by the narrative styles of their parents.