Persistent socket pain in a dog after the enucleation of the eye and its clinical management.

Persistent socket pain is a condition described in humans after enucleation of the eye. This report aims at describing this condition in dogs. A 10-year-old male-neutered crossbreed was presented to the referral veterinary surgeon for enucleation of the right ocular globe. Anaesthesia and surgery were uneventful although during the postoperative period the dog was reluctant to open the mouth and to be explored by the referral veteterinary surgeon. Despite treatment with meloxicam, paracetamol and tramadol, no improvements were observed. Ten weeks after surgery, the dog was referred to the Dick White referrals for further investigations. Ophthalmic examination was normal, though palpation of the wound triggered an avoidance response. Magnetic resonance imaging showed changes compatible with orbital cellulitis. The area of interest was evaluated with the use of the mechanical Von Frey filaments. A response, characterised by sudden turning of the head and attempts to withdraw it, was evoked with filament 4.93 (8.0 g) during stimulation of the periorbital area. After induction of anaesthesia, an ultrasound-guided injection containing levobupivacaine 0.5% and methylprednisolone was performed within the retrobulbar area. Three hours after recovery from anaesthesia, no discomfort was observed during palpation of the area. Re-evaluation was performed with the Von Frey filaments; no response could be evoked during testing with all 20 filaments (from 2.36 to 6.65) applied on either side of the face. The patient was discharged with a course of gabapentin and, 3 weeks after the intervention, the dog showed no clinical signs of pain. Persistent socket pain is an unpleasant sensation at the level of the enucleated orbit, and it should be regarded as a challenging condition to diagnose and treat. The MRI findings appeared to be essential to select the most appropriate interventional treatment. The injection of local anaesthetic and steroid into the retrobulbar space was useful for both confirming the diagnosis and treating pain by reducing the peripheral signalling and decreasing the residual inflammation.

Risk of burnout and depression: A survey of veterinary anaesthesia specialists in-training during COVID-19.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate risk, risk factors and effects on adherence to adequate clinical standards, of burnout and depression in veterinary anaesthesia residents. STUDY DESIGN: Closed online cross-sectional survey study. STUDY POPULATION: A sample of 89 residents registered to the European and/or the American Colleges of Veterinary An (ae)sthesia and Analgesia out of a total of 185. METHODS: A link to access an online questionnaire, which included the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS), the Harvard National Depression Screening Day Scale (HANDS) and 28 questions developed to assess adherence to adequate clinical standards, was sent by email to 185 residents. The three components of the MBI-HSS namely emotional exhaustion (EE), depersonalization and reduced personal accomplishment were analysed separately. Analysis of proportions and two-step regression statistical modelling were used for data analysis, and p values < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. RESULTS: The response rate was 48%. Based on HANDS and MBI-HSS scores, 49% of the residents were at high risk of both depression and burnout. These residents expressed greater concern of delivering inadequate animal care (p < 0.001), of decreased quality of supervision during COVID-19 (p = 0.038) and of negative impact of the pandemic on their training programme (p = 0.002) than residents at low-to-moderate risk. Working in a clinical environment for ≥ 60 hours/week was a risk factor for both depression (p = 0.016) and EE (p = 0.022), while female sex was a risk factor for EE only (p = 0.018). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A large proportion of residents is at high risk of depression and burnout, a scenario likely worsened by the pandemic. The findings of this study suggest that reducing the clinical workload and increasing the level of support and supervision may help to improve residents' mental health.

Nature-Inspired Heat and Moisture Exchanger Filters Composed of Gelatin and Chitosan for the Design of Eco-Sustainable "Artificial Noses".

For long-term mechanical ventilation, during anesthesia or intensive care, it is crucial to preserve a minimum level of humidity to avoid damage to the respiratory epithelium. Heat and moisture exchange filters (HME), also called "artificial noses," are passive systems that contribute to delivering inspired gases at about the same conditions of healthy respiration, i.e., 32 °C and relative humidity higher than 90%. Current HME devices suffer from limitations linked either to performance and filtration efficiency to their inadequate antibacterial efficiency, sterilization methods, and durability. Furthermore, in times of global warming and diminishing petroleum oil reserves, replacing the employing of synthetic materials with biomass biodegradable raw materials has considerable economic and environmental value. In the present study, a generation of eco-sustainable, bioinspired, and biodegradable HME devices are designed and developed through a green-chemistry process based on raw materials deriving from food waste and taking inspiration from the functioning, structure, and chemistry of our respiratory system. In particular, different blends are obtained by mixing aqueous solutions of gelatin and chitosan in various polymer ratios and concentrations and then by cross-linking them with different low amounts of genipin, a natural chemical cross-linker. Finally, the blends, post-gelation, are freeze-dried to obtain three-dimensional (3D) highly porous aerogels reproducing both the highly exposed surface area of the upper respiratory ways and the chemical composition of the mucus secretion covering the nasal mucosae. Results are comparable with accepted standards for HME devices and suitable bacteriostatic potential, thus validating these bioinspired materials as promising candidates to be used as an eco-sustainable generation of HME devices.

Effects of low-level laser therapy on impaired mobility in dogs with naturally occurring osteoarthritis.

BACKGROUND: Osteoarthritis is common in the aging dog and is associated with chronic pain and impaired mobility. The main objective of this study was to determine whether low-level laser therapy (LLLT) would increase physical activity in dogs with osteoarthritis. METHODS: Twenty-three dogs with osteoarthritis were instrumented with an accelerometer 48 h before the first LLLT session (baseline), to record daily activity. Each dog underwent six consecutive weekly laser treatments. The scores of the Canine Brief Pain Inventory and the Liverpool Osteoarthritis in Dogs' were recorded for clinical purposes, as a tool to titrate the analgesic therapy of each individual dog, before LLLT (as baseline) and then weekly for 6 weeks. RESULTS: The number of daily activities increased during week 2 (161,674; SD, 103,666) and remained higher than baseline (93,481; SD, 107,878) until week 6 (179,309; SD, 126,044; p < 0.001). Daily step count increased from week 1 (4472; SD, 3427) compared to baseline (1109; SD, 1061) and remained higher than the baseline until the end of week 6 (8416; SD, 3166; p < 0.001). Average energy expenditure during the study period was 179 [range, 2-536] kcal/day; there were no statistically significant differences in this variable between weeks of treatment. Systemic analgesics therapy was decreased in 50% of the dogs during the study period. CONCLUSIONS: Laser therapy may advance the management of osteoarthritis by increasing the level of activity of dogs, therefore improving their quality of life.

An Observational Survey Study on the Use of Locoregional Anaesthesia in Non-Conventional Species: Current Practice and Potential Future Developments.

The objectives of this study were to investigate the current attitudes of veterinarians towards the use of locoregional anaesthesia in non-conventional animal species and to identify areas for future useful research on this topic. A questionnaire was circulated online. A total of 417 veterinarians, including American and European specialists/specialists-in-training in both zoological medicine and anaesthesia/analgesia (ACZM/ECZM and ACVAA/ECVAA), participated in the study. Fifty-nine percent of respondents performed locoregional anaesthesia in rabbits, with intratesticular injections and local infiltration being the most commonly-reported techniques. ACZM/ECZM specialists reportedly performed dental blocks in rabbits more frequently than ACVAA/ECVAA specialists (p = 0.030). Forty percent of respondents performed locoregional anaesthesia in rodents, with intratesticular injections, topical/splash blocks and local infiltration being the most commonly reported techniques. The proportions of respondents who reportedly used locoregional anaesthesia in ferrets, birds and reptiles were 37.9%, 34.5% and 31.2%, respectively. The use of Tuohy (p < 0.001) and spinal needles (p < 0.001), as well as of ultrasonography (p = 0.009) and nerve-stimulators (p < 0.001), was more common among ACVAA/ECVAA compared to ACZM/ECZM specialists. Major topic areas for future research were identified as dental block techniques for rabbits and rodents and blocks for the wings of birds.

ISOFLURANE ANESTHESIA IN BUDWING PRAYING MANTISES (PARASPHENDALE AGRIONINA).

Praying mantises have gained increasing popularity as pets and may be anesthetized to allow morphological identification and clinical procedures. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects and anesthetic-related complications of isoflurane in oxygen in 15 client-owned budwing mantises (Parasphendale agrionina) undergoing photographic identification. Each mantis was placed in a self-constructed anesthetic chamber and exposed to a mixture of approximately 5% isoflurane in oxygen until anesthetic induction was achieved. Time to anesthetic induction, time to recovery from anesthesia, and quality of anesthesia based on scoring of righting reflex, front legs withdrawal, and muscular tone, were evaluated and recorded, as well as the occurrence of undesired effects. In most mantises, immobility, loss of righting reflex, and myorelaxation were achieved within minutes after the beginning of isoflurane exposure and lasted a time sufficient to allow completion of the procedure. However, mantises aged ≥12 mo had longer time to anesthetic induction (4.3 ± 0.6 m), as well as shorter time to recovery (19.0 ± 8.0 m), than mantises aged <12 mo (0.8 ± 0.4 and 30.0 ± 15.0; P < 0.05). Complications were not observed, and all mantises were returned to their owner on the same evening.

Mandibular nerve block in juvenile Nile crocodile: a cadaveric study.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a technique for performing the mandibular nerve block in Nile crocodiles. STUDY DESIGN: Experimental cadaveric study. ANIMALS: A total of 16 juvenile Nile crocodile heads. METHODS: To study the course of the mandibular nerve, one head was dissected. Computed tomography (CT) examination was performed in two heads to identify useful landmarks. Thereafter, a hypodermic needle was inserted through the external mandibular fenestra of 17 hemimandibles (13 heads), and a mixture of methylene blue and iohexol was injected. Injection volumes were 0.5 (n = 7) and 1.0 mL (n = 10) for hemimandibles < 15 and ≥ 15 cm long, respectively. Iohexol spread and nerve staining with methylene blue were assessed with CT and anatomical dissection, respectively. Data were analysed with one-sample t test or Mann-Whitney U test. Significance was set at p < 0.05. RESULTS: Both anatomical dissection and imaging confirmed the external mandibular fenestra as a useful anatomical landmark for needle insertion. The CT images acquired after needle positioning confirmed that its tip was located on the medial bony mandibular surface formed by the fusion of the angular and coronoid bones in 100% cases. In all the hemimandibles, the rostrocaudal spread of contrast was > 23 mm. The length of the stained mandibular nerve in the temporal region and of the stained medial branch of the mandibular nerve, as well as the dorsoventral and mediolateral spread of iohexol, was greater in group 1.0 than in group 0.5 (p < 0.001). The caudal spread of iohexol was greater in group 1.0 than in group 0.5 (p = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The technique developed in this study is feasible. Both injection volumes resulted in staining of the mandibular nerve. The spread of contrast in the anatomical region of interest may result in successful sensory block.

Ultrasound-guided psoas compartment and sciatic nerve blocks for pain management of hind limb procedures in the alpaca (Vicugna pacos).

Background: Loco-regional anesthetic techniques are considered important in the multimodal approach to analgesia in both human and veterinary medicine. No such techniques are described in the alpaca, bar the use of epidural. This is in part due to the lack of anatomical description for this species. While this limitation exists, the use of ultrasound guidance makes peripheral nerve blocks a viable possibility in the alpaca. Case description: A 12-month-old alpaca was referred for the treatment of a septic left tarso-crural joint. Due to a poor prognosis, amputation of the limb under general anesthesia was performed. Sciatic and psoas compartment blocks were attempted with the ultrasound-guided injection of ropivacaine prior to the start of the procedure. While the femoral nerve was possible to visualize, no obturator nerve was identified. A 5-year old alpaca was also referred for a left hind lateral claw removal, due to a squamous cell carcinoma. The sciatic nerve block was performed prior to the claw amputation under general anesthesia. No changes in heart and respiratory rate, or blood pressure suggestive of nociception, were observed in either of these cases. At the end of both the procedures, the patients experienced uneventful recoveries characterized by the ability to maintain the standing position, interest in food, and normal behavior. Conclusion: This report identifies the ease of performance and the challenges encountered using the ultrasound-guided psoas compartment and sciatic nerve blocks in the alpaca. It is our hope that this report encourages the use of ultrasound-guided loco-regional techniques in this species.

Acute Life-threatening Laryngeal Dysfunction in a Draft Horse Recovering from General Anesthesia: A Case Report.

A 13-year-old Shire horse was anesthetized for an elective orthopedic procedure. During recovery from anesthesia, the occurrence of severe acute dyspnea required a second anesthetic to allow endoscopy-guided nasotracheal intubation. Endoscopic findings were decreased mobility and swelling of the arytenoids with narrowing of the laryngeal aditus. Owing to a dislodgement of the nasotracheal tube during recovery, a third anesthetic was carried out to perform emergency tracheostomy. Recovery from the third anesthetic was long and the horse developed a post-anesthetic myopathy. The clinical conditions improved during the following 48 hours, and an endoscopic examination performed before discharge revealed unremarkable laryngeal function. It was hypothesized that mechanical stimulation of the trachea during the phases of intubation and extubation caused traumatic laryngeal dysfunction, and that draft horses might require additional care during the perioperative period.

Preliminary clinical experience of low-level laser therapy for the treatment of canine osteoarthritis-associated pain: A retrospective investigation on 17 dogs.

Background: Osteoarthritis (OA) is common in dogs and causes chronic pain that affects the quality of life and may not respond to analgesics. Objective: The objective of this study was to determine whether low-level laser therapy (LLLT) would improve the quality of life and help reducing systemic analgesics, in dogs with OA. Methods: Seventeen client-owned dogs diagnosed with OA and associated pain were included. The diagnosis of OA was confirmed by orthopedic and radiographic examination. Pain was evaluated in each dog with the canine brief pain inventory (CBPI), compiled by the dog owners, as well as with a visual analog scale (VAS) and the colorado state canine chronic pain scale, used by the clinician. The LLLT was performed weekly in each study dog, for a total period of 6 weeks. The CBPI was then repeated at 2, 4, 6, and 8 weeks after the first laser session, whereas the VAS was reassessed at weeks 2 and 6. The dogs were observed for the occurrence of laser-related side effects. Results: Both CBPI and VAS were significantly reduced after the first laser session (9.2 ± 3.8 and 5.2 ± 1.1, respectively) compared to pretreatment values (11.8 ± 3.6 and 7.6 ± 0.9, respectively; and p = 0.018 and p < 0.001, respectively) and continued to decrease over time until the end of the therapy. Based on these results and improved function, as assessed by the orthopedic surgeon, the pharmacological analgesic therapy was reduced by the clinician at week 2 in 13 of 17 dogs. Laser-related side effects were not observed. Conclusion: This retrospective report provides a basis for future investigations, needed to clarify whether laser therapy may be beneficial to treat canine OA-associated pain. The preliminary findings are promising and suggest that LLLT may help reducing the analgesic administration and improving client satisfaction and the quality of life of dogs with OA.

Anesthesia and Anesthetic-Related Complications of 8 Elegant-Crested Tinamous (Eudromia elegans) Undergoing Experimental Surgery.

The aim of this study was to describe the anesthetic effects of an injectable anesthetic protocol, based on ketamine, midazolam, and medetomidine, followed by inhalational sevoflurane, in 8 elegant-crested tinamous (Eudromia elegans) undergoing experimental surgery. Initial doses for both injectable agents were tested in 1 bird and then refined with an algorithm based on the effects observed in the pilot procedure. Heart and respiratory rates, as well as nociceptive reflexes, were evaluated before anesthesia (baseline) and intraoperatively, at 10 minute intervals. The time from injection to anesthetic induction and surgical anesthesia, as well as the time from atipamezole injection to recovery, was recorded for each bird. The median doses of medetomidine and ketamine were 0.075 mg/kg and 33 mg/kg, respectively. Anesthetic induction was achieved within 10 (range, 4-45) minutes from intramuscular injection, whereas time to surgical anesthesia was 22 ±16 minutes. The baseline heart rate values were significantly higher than those measured intraoperatively at any time point (P = .001). Intraoperatively, 5 of 8 tinamous (63%) developed cardiac arrhythmias. Other encountered complications were regurgitation in 2 birds (25%), cardiac arrest in 1 bird (13%) soon after injection of the anesthetic agents, and prolonged recovery in another bird (13%), which was euthanized. Necropsy of the 2 fatal outcomes (25%) showed evidence of hepatic lipidosis in both (100%) and intramyocardial fat accumulation in 1 bird (50%). This report highlights the challenges of tinamou anesthesia. Cardiac complications are common in this species, and close monitoring of intraoperative cardiovascular variables is recommended for prompt recognition and treatment.

Effect of Insulin and Fasting Regimen on Blood Glucose Concentrations of Diabetic Dogs During Phacoemulsification.

This study aimed to compare four protocols for preanesthetic insulin administration and fasting time with respect to the variation of intraoperative blood glucose (BG) concentrations versus preanesthetic values (baseline). The patient records of dogs undergoing cataract surgery were included. Data on anesthetic protocols, comorbidities, and intraoperative complications (hyper- and hypoglycemia, hypotension, hypothermia, and bradycardia) were analyzed. The insulin/fasting protocols included (A) 12 hr fasting and half insulin dose, (B) 6 hr fasting and half insulin dose, (C) 12 hr fasting and full insulin dose, and (D) 12 hr fasting and no insulin. Forty-eight dogs were included (14 in A, 10 in B, 13 in C, and 11 in D). Protocol D resulted in a significant increase of intraoperative BG concentrations compared with baseline (P = .001), whereas in the remaining groups, the baseline BG did not differ from intraoperative values. There were no statistically significant associations between the treatment group and the occurrence of intraoperative complications or the presence of diagnosed comorbidities. In conclusion, different insulin and fasting regimen protocols may be used for diabetic patients with no apparent benefit or risk from one protocol versus another. The use of insulin before surgery results in lesser increase of BG intraoperatively as compared with preanesthetic values. However, whether this should be interpreted as better perioperative control of glycemia remains debatable.

Prevalence of Electrolyte Disturbances and Perianesthetic Death Risk Factors in 120 Horses Undergoing Colic Surgery.

The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of intraoperative electrolyte disturbances and risk factors associated with perianesthetic death in horses undergoing colic surgery. The files of 120 horses meeting the inclusion criteria were reviewed. Data retrieved from the medical records, including demographic data and the occurrence of electrolyte disturbances and other intraoperative complications, were analyzed with a two step-approach by univariate and multivariate logistic regression models. Hypocalcemia was the most represented electrolyte disturbance (52.5%), followed by hypokalemia (30.0%) that was associated with intraoperative administration of salbutamol (P = .045). Perianesthetic death occurred in 46 horses, accounting for an overall mortality rate of 38.3%. Risk factors associated with death were anesthetic duration (P = .001), body weight (P = .020), presence of gastric reflux before anesthesia (P = .021), and intraoperative tachycardia (P = .043) and acidosis (P = .025). The mortality in the study population was comparable to previously reported findings. Based on the study findings, it is advisable to optimize hemodynamics prior to anesthesia, in order to prevent intraoperative tachycardia that is associated with increased risk of death. Heavier horses and those with gastric reflux may have a higher risk of fatalities, and intraoperative salbutamol administration may contribute to hypokalemia.

Immersion anaesthesia with ethanol in African giant land snails (Acathina fulica).

Giant African land snails (Achatina fulica) are becoming increasingly popular pets and may be anaesthetised to allow diagnostics and surgical procedures. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the anaesthetic effects and anaesthetic-related complications of immersion in 5% ethanol in client-owned African pet land snails, anaesthetised to allow biopsies of the foot for screening of parasites. Variables such as minutes elapsing from immersion to anaesthetic induction and from removal from the bath to return of tentacle withdrawal reflex and recovery from anaesthesia were recorded, as well as the occurrence of adverse effects. Of the 30 snails enrolled, one (3.3%) had a fatal outcome whereas the remaining 29 (96.7%) snails completed the study and recovered from anaesthesia. Time to anaesthetic induction was 25 [25-29] minutes. Recovery was prolonged in one snail, which required 210 minutes to regain normal muscular strength. Time from removal from the ethanol solution to return of tentacle withdrawal reflex was 20 [14-42] minutes. Beside death, other observed adverse effects were production of bubbles (n = 4; 13.3%), and mucus secretion (n = 4; 13.3%). Immersion in 5% ethanol may be regarded as suitable anaesthetic technique for African giant snails for brief and moderately invasive surgical procedures. Nevertheless, recovery from anaesthesia may be prolonged and unpredictable.

Relating neuromuscular control to functional anatomy of limb muscles in extant archosaurs.

Electromyography (EMG) is used to understand muscle activity patterns in animals. Understanding how much variation exists in muscle activity patterns in homologous muscles across animal clades during similar behaviours is important for evaluating the evolution of muscle functions and neuromuscular control. We compared muscle activity across a range of archosaurian species and appendicular muscles, including how these EMG patterns varied across ontogeny and phylogeny, to reconstruct the evolutionary history of archosaurian muscle activation during locomotion. EMG electrodes were implanted into the muscles of turkeys, pheasants, quail, guineafowl, emus (three age classes), tinamous and juvenile Nile crocodiles across 13 different appendicular muscles. Subjects walked and ran at a range of speeds both overground and on treadmills during EMG recordings. Anatomically similar muscles such as the lateral gastrocnemius exhibited similar EMG patterns at similar relative speeds across all birds. In the crocodiles, the EMG signals closely matched previously published data for alligators. The timing of lateral gastrocnemius activation was relatively later within a stride cycle for crocodiles compared to birds. This difference may relate to the coordinated knee extension and ankle plantarflexion timing across the swing-stance transition in Crocodylia, unlike in birds where there is knee flexion and ankle dorsiflexion across swing-stance. No significant effects were found across the species for ontogeny, or between treadmill and overground locomotion. Our findings strengthen the inference that some muscle EMG patterns remained conservative throughout Archosauria: for example, digital flexors retained similar stance phase activity and M. pectoralis remained an 'anti-gravity' muscle. However, some avian hindlimb muscles evolved divergent activations in tandem with functional changes such as bipedalism and more crouched postures, especially M. iliotrochantericus caudalis switching from swing to stance phase activity and M. iliofibularis adding a novel stance phase burst of activity.

Use of atracurium and its reversal with neostigmine in 14 pet rabbits undergoing ophthalmic surgery: a retrospective study.

The objective of this retrospective study was to report the clinical use of atracurium and its reversal with neostigmine in pet rabbits. The medical records of 14 rabbits undergoing anaesthesia for ophthalmic surgery were located through a search of the hospital's database. Demographic data and data pertaining to the use of the neuromuscular blocker and its reversal were analysed. After intravenous administration of 0.44±0.4 mg/kg atracurium (total dose), 11 rabbits experienced at least one of the following cardiovascular responses: hypotension, defined as systolic arterial pressure less than 75 mmHg (n=6), hypotension with decreased heart rate (HR) (n=1), hypotension with increased HR (n=1), decreased arterial blood pressure (ABP) without hypotension (n=6), decreased ABP with decreased HR (n=1), or increased HR (n=2, ABP reading could not be taken). Two of these 11 rabbits also experienced severe intraoperative hypothermia. The neuromuscular block was monitored with a train-of-four nerve-stimulation pattern, and reversed, with intramuscular 0.01-0.045 mg/kg neostigmine and 0.01-0.02 mg/kg glycopyrronium, after the return of at least two out of four muscular twitches following nerve stimulation. Decrease in ABP and possibly hypothermia are likely intraoperative complications when clinical doses of atracurium are administered to pet rabbits. Measures should be taken to detect their occurrence in order to treat them promptly.

Assessment of an ultrasound-guided technique for catheterization of the caudal thoracic paravertebral space in dog cadavers.

Background: The caudal thoracic paravertebral (CTPV) block is a regional anesthesia technique currently used in human medicine to provide analgesia in abdominal surgical procedures. Aim: The objectives of this study are to describe an ultrasound-guided technique to place catheters in CTPV space in canine cadavers and evaluate the distribution of a 50:50 contrast-dye solution administered through them. Methods: Eight thawed adult beagle cadavers (9.2 ± 2.0 kg body total weight) were used. Thirteen catheters were placed. In the first phase, a volume of 0.3 ml kg-1 of the contrast-dye was administered in all cases. After the injections, computed tomography (CT) scans were carried out to assess the distribution of the contrast-dye. In the second phase, an extra 0.2 ml kg-1 of the contrast-dye was administered through eight catheters, followed by a second CT scan. Two cadavers were dissected to assess the distribution of the contrast-dye. The injection site varied between T8-9 and T12-13. Results: The evaluation of the CT scans showed contrast-dye within the paravertebral space in 92% (12/13) of the injections. The distribution pattern observed after the injections performed within the TPV space was linear and intercostal in all cases. The median (range) linear spread of the contrast was 7 (5-10) spinal nerves and involved 3 (2-8) intercostal spaces. The contrast-dye reached lumbar regions in 42% of the injections (5/12). A larger spread of the contrast-dye was not observed after the administration of a second dose of the injectate. No signs of epidural, intrapleural/intrapulmonary, intravascular, or intraabdominal spread were observed. The dissection of the two cadavers confirmed the spread of the contrast-dye along the sympathetic trunk and intercostal spaces. Conclusion: The administration of 0.3 ml kg-1 of the contrast-dye in the CTPV space resulted in a distribution compatible with the block of nerves responsible for the innervation of the majority of the abdominal viscera and cranial abdominal wall.

Inter-rater and inter-device reliability of mechanical thresholds measurement with the Electronic von Frey Anaesthesiometer and the SMALGO in healthy cats.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to compare the Electronic von Frey Anaesthesiometer (EVF) and the Small Animal ALGOmeter (SMALGO), used to measure sensory thresholds in 13 healthy cats at both the stifle and the lumbosacral joint, in terms of inter-rater and inter-device reliability. METHODS: Two independent observers carried out the sets of measurements in a randomised order, with a 45 min interval between them, in each cat. The inter-rater and inter-device reliability were evaluated by calculating the inter-rater correlation coefficient (ICC) for each pair of measurements. The Bland-Altman method was used as an additional tool to assess the level of agreement between the two algometers. RESULTS: The mean ± SD sensory thresholds measured with the EVF were 311 ± 116 g and 378 ± 178 g for the stifle and for the lumbosacral junction, respectively, whereas those measured with the SMALGO were 391 ±172 g and 476 ± 172 g. The inter-rater reliability was fair (ICC >0.4) for each pair of measurements except those taken at the level of the stifle with the SMALGO, for which the level of agreement between observers A and B was poor (ICC = 0.01). The inter-device reliability was good (ICC = 0.73; P = 0.001). The repetition of the measurements affected reliability, as the thresholds obtained after the 45 min break were consistently lower than those measured during the first part of the trial (P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: The EVF and the SMALGO may be used interchangeably in cats, especially when the area to be tested is the lumbosacral joint. However, when the thresholds are measured at the stifle, the inter-observer reliability is better with the EVF than with the SMALGO. The reliability decreases when the measurements are repeated within a short time interval, suggesting a limited clinical applicability of quantitative sensory testing with both algometers in cats.

Medetomidine-ketamine-sevoflurane anaesthesia in juvenile Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) undergoing experimental surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the anaesthetic, physiological and side effects of intramuscular (IM) medetomidine and ketamine, followed by inhalational anaesthesia with sevoflurane, in Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus). STUDY DESIGN: Observational trial. ANIMALS: Ten juvenile captive-bred Nile crocodiles undergoing surgical implantation of skeletal beads and muscular electrodes. METHODS: During preanaesthetic examination, the following variables were assessed: heart (HR) and respiratory (fR) rates, and response to palpebral, corneal and toe- and tail-pinch withdrawal reflexes. The crocodiles were injected IM with an initial combination of medetomidine and ketamine and re-evaluated at 5 minute intervals for 20 minutes, or until they appeared unresponsive. If that did not occur, the drugs were redosed according to a decision tree based on the observed effects. The righting, biting and palatal valve reflexes were assessed in the unresponsive crocodiles, and used to confirm anaesthetic induction. Anaesthesia was maintained with sevoflurane in oxygen. At the end of surgery, medetomidine was antagonized with IM atipamezole. RESULTS: The decision tree identified 0.3 mg kg-1 medetomidine and 15 mg kg-1 ketamine as a useful drug combination, which resulted in anaesthetic induction and surgical anaesthesia 16 ± 8 and 16 (25-20) minutes after injection, respectively. Compared to baseline, HR and fR significantly decreased after anaesthetic induction (p < 0.001), but then remained stable throughout surgery. Intraoperatively, cloacal temperature [27 (26-30) °C] did not change over time (p = 0.48). The total dose of atipamezole was 2 (1-3) mg kg-1 and time to recovery was 36 (20-60) minutes. Perioperative complications were not observed. CONCLUSIONS: and clinical relevance Medetomidine and ketamine, injected IM and followed by sevoflurane anaesthesia, may be regarded as a useful anaesthetic technique for juvenile Nile crocodiles undergoing minimally invasive experimental surgery.