Evaluating the redistributive impact of public health expenditure using an insurance value approach.

This article analyses the redistributive impact of public health expenditure in Spain using an insurance value approach to compute individual and household's value of health services non-cash benefit. We model the intensity of use of different health care services using a count data framework on a nationally representative health care survey and then predict probabilities on the 2006 Spanish EU-SILC sample. This allows us to extend disposable income with the expected monetary value of public health services and to compare it with strictly cash income. Since non-cash income due to public health services is associated with health needs, we use needs-adjusted equivalence scales to perform distributional analysis and poverty/inequality comparisons. The results show that public health expenditure in Spain acts progressively on income distribution, and that health in-kind benefits, once considered as part of disposable income, can be extremely effective in reducing poverty and inequality.

Vascular cognitive impairment and dementia expenditures: 7-year inpatient cost description in community dwellers.

BACKGROUND: Vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) and vascular dementia (VaD) are prevalent conditions with a growing impact on health care expenses. Few studies have addressed expenditures on cognitive vascular disease. We quantify the expenses of tertiary-care inpatients with VCI and VaD and provide the first report on the specific cost of care in community-dwelling patients with small- and large-vessel ischemic cognitive disease. METHODS: This is a cost-description study of inpatient expenditures from the Spanish National Health Institute and regional government perspectives. We retrospectively analyzed the expenses in a prospective cohort of 122 community dwellers with VCI who developed small-vessel disease with ischemic white matter disease (Binswanger's disease) (n = 60), lacunar state (n = 26), or large-vessel disease (n = 36). Admissions with a primary or secondary diagnosis of transient ischemic attack or stroke, cognitive impairment or dementia, and other diagnoses related to cerebrovascular disease were assessed. RESULTS: The average cost per patient was $33 740. The costs per VCI admission were similar across groups (~$9545). The average number of admissions increased during the progression of the disease (VCI, 1.2; VaD, 2.5) and contributed to higher expenses per patient during the VaD stage (~$22 631) compared with the VCI stage (~$11 110). Half of patients (n = 61; 50%) progressed without ischemic events during the VCI stage. These patients incurred lower per-patient costs during the VCI stage ($9750 vs $12 464), and costs increased during the post-VaD diagnosis stage ($28 528 vs $16 734). CONCLUSION: Large- and small-vessel cerebrovascular diseases are common and costly conditions. Vascular cognitive impairment presenting with stroke may incur greater expenses than VCI onset without stroke. Thus, patients with large-vessel disease incurred higher costs during the VCI stage. Care became more onerous at an advanced VaD stage in all groups. During the VaD stage, the expenditures of patients with Binswanger's disease were significantly higher and eventually counterbalanced the initially lower costs seen during the VCI stage.

[Estimation of the number of individuals entitled to dependency benefits and of the associated cost of care in Spain for 2007-2045]. / Estimación de los beneficiarios de prestaciones de dependencia en España y del gasto asociado a su atención para 2007-2045.

OBJECTIVE: To provide estimates of the number of dependent individuals per grade and level for the period 2007-2045 and the cost associated with the care of these individuals for the System for Promoting the Autonomy and Care of Dependent Persons [Sistema para la Autonomía y Atención a la Dependencia (SAAD)]. METHODS: Based on the Disabilities, Independence and Dependency Situations Survey (2008) and the scale for the assessment of grades and levels of dependency, we applied a two-stage estimation procedure to project the number of dependent individuals. In the first stage, we calculated the probability of a person being dependent and entitled to benefits by using a logit model. In the second stage, using an ordered logit model, we calculated the probability of distinct grades and levels of dependency in dependent persons entitled to benefits. Subsequently, we calculated expenditure projections based on average cost per point scale by grade and level of dependency. RESULTS: Our results suggest a higher incidence of situations of dependency in female beneficiaries than in male beneficiaries, with higher growth rates for almost all categories of grade and level between 2007 and 2045. We estimated that in 2045 there will be 1,592,798 beneficiaries of the SAAD (596,332 men and 996,466 women). Moreover, between 2007 and 2045 the cost of care for dependent people will be multiplied by 2.64 for male beneficiaries and by 2.89 for female beneficiaries, amounting to 41,926 million euros in 2045. CONCLUSIONS: The care of dependent persons is a major challenge for Spanish society both because of the number of persons that will require care and because of the greater economic cost involved. These findings should prompt a debate on how to fund services and benefits and how to ensure the sustainability of the system.

Estimación de los beneficiarios de prestaciones de dependencia en España y del gasto asociado a su atención para 2007-2045 / Estimation of the number of individuals entitled to dependency benefits and of the associated cost of care in Spain for 2007-2045

Objetivos: Ofrecer una estimación de las personas dependientes por grado y nivel para el periodo 2007-2045 y del coste asociado a su atención en el Sistema para la Autonomía y Atención a la Dependencia (SAAD). Métodos: A partir de la Encuesta de Discapacidad, Autonomía personal y situaciones de Dependencia (2008), y del baremo de valoración de los grados y niveles de dependencia, aplicamos un procedimiento de estimación bietápico para las proyecciones de personas dependientes. En la primera etapa se calcula la probabilidad de que una persona sea o no dependiente con derecho a prestación mediante un modelo logit, mientras que en la segunda etapa se calcula (mediante un modelo logit ordenado) la probabilidad de que una persona, siendo dependiente con derecho a prestación, presente un determinado nivel y grado de dependencia. A continuación se ofrecen proyecciones de gasto en dependencia a partir de costes medios por punto de baremo según grado y nivel. Resultados: Se obtiene una mayor incidencia de las situaciones de dependencia en las beneficiarias mujeres que en los hombres, con tasas de crecimiento entre 2007 y 2045 más altas para casi todas las categorías de grado y nivel. Para 2045 estimamos que habrá 1.592.798 beneficiarios del SAAD (596.332 hombres y 996.466 mujeres). Asimismo, entre 2007 y 2045 el coste de atención a los beneficiarios hombres se multiplicaría por 2,64 y el de las mujeres dependientes por 2,89, ascendiendo en 2045 a 41.926 millones de euros. Conclusiones: La atención a las personas en situación de dependencia supone un importante reto para la sociedad española, por la cuantía de personas a cubrir y por el creciente esfuerzo económico que conlleva, lo cual debería abrir el debate sobre la manera más adecuada de financiar los servicios y prestaciones del SAAD y asegurar su sostenibilidad (AU)

Objective: To provide estimates of the number of dependent individuals per grade and level for the period 2007-2045 and the cost associated with the care of these individuals for the System for Promoting the Autonomy and Care of Dependent Persons [Sistema para la Autonomía y Atención a la Dependencia (SAAD)]. Methods: Based on the Disabilities, Independence and Dependency Situations Survey (2008) and the scale for the assessment of grades and levels of dependency, we applied a two-stage estimation procedure to project the number of dependent individuals. In the first stage, we calculated the probability of a person being dependent and entitled to benefits by using a logit model. In the second stage, using an ordered logit model, we calculated the probability of distinct grades and levels of dependency in dependent persons entitled to benefits. Subsequently, we calculated expenditure projections based on average cost per point scale by grade and level of dependency. Results: Our results suggest a higher incidence of situations of dependency in female beneficiaries than in male beneficiaries, with higher growth rates for almost all categories of grade and level between 2007 and 2045. We estimated that in 2045 there will be 1,592,798 beneficiaries of the SAAD (596,332 men and 996,466 women). Moreover, between 2007 and 2045 the cost of care for dependent people will be multiplied by 2.64 for male beneficiaries and by 2.89 for female beneficiaries, amounting to 41,926 million euros in 2045. Conclusions: The care of dependent persons is a major challenge for Spanish society both because of the number of persons that will require care and because of the greater economic cost involved. These findings should prompt a debate on how to fund services and benefits and how to ensure the sustainability of the system (AU)

Vascular cognitive impairment in small vessel disease: clinical and neuropsychological features of lacunar state and Binswanger's disease.

BACKGROUND: ischaemic cerebrovascular small vessel disease (SVD) is a prevalent and under-diagnosed condition that triggers vascular cognitive impairment (VCI). OBJECTIVE: to describe the neuropsychological and clinical profiles in SVD (Binswanger's disease, BD; lacunar state, LS) from the clinician's perspective at the VCI stage. METHODS: a total of 1257 patients admitted to a tertiary center with a diagnosis of stroke, neuroradiological vascular disease, cognitive impairment/dementia, during a 13-year period were investigated. We prospectively assessed cognition in a subset of 141 patients with VCI (LS n = 28, BD n = 69, large vessel disease-LVD-n = 44) with MMSE, CAMDEX-H, WAIS-R, EXIT-25 and Trail making test. RESULTS: executive dysfunction (ECD) (n = 89, 91.7% versus n = 10, 22.7%; P < 0.001) and gait disturbances (n = 74, 76.3% versus n = 15, 34.1%; P < 0.001) characterized SVD. Prior strokes (n = 9, 9.3% versus n = 23, 52.3%; P < 0.001) and embologenous cardiopathy (n = 39, 40.2% versus n = 28, 63.6%; P < 0.04) featured LVD cases. BD was defined by hypertension (n = 52, 75.4% versus n = 30, 44.1%; P < 0.001), ECD (n = 65, 94.2% versus n = 34, 47.2%; P < 0.001) and VCI onset with cognitive impairment but not strokes (n = 44, 63.8% versus n = 34, 50%; P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: ECD and a frontal gait are SVD's clinical landmarks in our sample. LS and BD cases share a similar cognitive profile.

Vascular cognitive impairment: prodromal stages of ischemic vascular dementia.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: To describe the natural history of the prodromal stages of ischemic vascular dementia (pVaD). METHODS: A sample of 314 inpatients with pVaD or a clini- cal diagnosis of vascular dementia (VaD; lacunar state, Binswanger's disease, pure cortical VaD, corticosubcortical and strategic infarctions) admitted to a teaching tertiary center during a 13-year period was assessed (retrospectively n = 88, prospectively n = 226). Prospective neuropsychological assessment consisted of Mini Mental State Examination, Revised Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Exit-25, Trail Making tests, Blessed Dementia Scale and Camdex H, Global Depression Scale and Hamilton Depression Rating Scale tests. Univariate analysis and logistic regressions are displayed. RESULTS: An unrecognized pVaD was related with a clinical onset with cognitive impairment no dementia (CIND) versus symptomatic cerebrovascular events (p < 0.0001), and with being under therapy with anticoagulant or antiplatelet agents (p < 0.01). Age <85 years at diagnosis of VaD (p < 0.01) correlated with a delayed pVaD diagnosis. CIND onset was associated with a longer prodromal stage (p < 0.01), no clinical strokes during pVaD (p < 0.001), silent ischemia (p < 0.01) and Binswanger's disease (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Vascular cognitive impairment remains an underdiagnosed, yet treatable entity. A brief neuropsychological examination and informant interviews should become standard practice in elderly populations with vascular risk factors. Small-vessel disease is a prevalent condition with a distinct natural history.