Diseño y validación de un cuestionario de Conocimiento Táctico en Voleibol, en Brasil / Design and validation of a Tactical Knowledge questionnaire in Volleyball, in Brazil

El objetivo del presente estudio fue diseñar y validar un cuestionario que permita evaluar el Conocimiento Táctico en Voleibol en etapas de formación, en el contexto de Brasil, para jugadores en edades comprendidas entre los 11 y los 18 años (M = 15.2; SD = ±1.4). El instrumento elaborado está basado en el cuestionario de MacGee and Farrow (1987), en voleibol, incluyendo 24 cuestiones referidas a la categoría táctica. El proceso de diseño y validación se realizó en seis fases: a) revisión bibliográfica; b) elaboración del instrumento; c) validez de contenido a través de la técnica de jueces expertos; d) cálculo del coeficiente V de Aiken; e) cálculo de los intervalos de confianza; f) análisis de la fiabilidad, aplicado a la respuesta del cuestionario de 798 sujetos, con diferentes contextos de rendimiento, años de experiencia (M = 1.93; SD = ±1.2), y género, pertenecientes al contexto de voleibol de Brasil. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que el cuestionario permite medir de manera válida y fiable el conocimiento táctico de los jugadores de voleibol de Brasil, obteniendo en todas las preguntas valores por encima de .78 en el grado de pertinencia de las preguntas al objeto de estudio, y valores por encima de .67 en el grado de comprensión, teniendo que modificar alguna de ellas (preguntas 2, 11, 14, 19 y 22) por encontrarse en valores de V de Aiken entre 68 y 78.(AU)

O objetivo deste estudo foi elaborar e validar um questionário que permita avaliar o Conhecimento Tático no Voleibol em etapas de treinamento, no contexto do Brasil, para jogadores entre 11 e 18 anos (M = 15,2; DP = ± 1,4). O instrumento elaborado é baseado no questionário de MacGee e Farrow (1987), no voleibol, incluindo 24 questões referentes à categoria tática. O processo de desenho e validação foi realizado em seis fases: a) revisão bibliográfica; b) desenvolvimento do instrumento; c) validade de conteúdo por meio da técnica de juízes especialistas; d) cálculo do coeficiente V de Aiken; e) cálculo de intervalos de confiança; f) análise de confiabilidade, aplicada à resposta do questionário de 798 sujeitos, com diferentes contextos de atuação, anos de experiência (M = 1,93; DP = ±1,2) e sexo, pertencentes ao contexto do voleibol brasileiro. Os resultados obtidos mostram que o questionário permite mensurar de forma válida e confiável o conhecimento tático dos jogadores de voleibol brasileiros, obtendo valores acima de 0,78 em todas as questões no grau de pertinência das questões ao objeto de estudo, e valores acima 0,67 no grau de compreensão, tendo que modificar algumas delas (questões 2, 11, 14, 19 e 22) por estarem nos valores do V de Aiken entre 0,68 e 0,78.(AU)

The objective of this study was to design and validate a questionnaire that allows evaluating the Tactical Knowledge in Volleyball in training stages, in the context of Brazil, for players between the ages of 11 and 18 (M = 15.2; SD = ± 1.4). The elaborated instrument is based on the questionnaire of MacGee and Farrow (1987), in volleyball, including 24 questions referring to the tactical category. The design and validation process was carried out in six phases: a) bibliographic review; b) development of the instrument; c) content validity through the technique of expert judges; d) calculation of Aiken's V coefficient; e) calculation of confidence intervals; f) reliability analysis, applied to the questionnaire response of 798 subjects, with different performance contexts, years of experience (M = 1.93; SD = ±1.2), and gender, belonging to the Brazilian volleyball context. The results obtained show that the questionnaire allows valid and reliable measurement of the tactical knowledge of Brazilian volleyball players, obtaining values above .78 in all questions in the degree of relevance of the questions to the object of study, and values above .67 in the degree of comprehension, having to modify some of them (questions 2, 11, 14, 19 and 22) because they are in Aiken's V values between 68 and 78.(AU)

Towards a More Efficient Training Process in High-Level Female Volleyball From a Match Analysis Intervention Program Based on the Constraint-Led Approach: The Voice of the Players.

The aim of the research was to know the perception of high-level volleyball players of the changes produced (in relation to the previous season) in the efficiency of the training process, after a match analysis intervention program based on the Constraint-led Approach (CLA). The sample consisted of 11 players from a women's volleyball team. The protocol of the intervention program consisted of providing objective, contextualised and systematic information to the coach (adapted to his needs) that would allow understanding the different real game contexts. We used semi-structured interviews to assess players' perceptions. The athletes perceived changes in training, both in their preparation and development, specifically in greater involvement and organisation in preparing the training; in an increase in the specificity and suitability of training tasks according to individual needs; in the representativeness of the restrictions of the game; in a more tactical approach; in the variability of task and in the accountability to achieve the objective proposed. In addition, in the preparation and development for competition, the players detected more game planning; a deeper analysis of the opponents; an objective selection of the most relevant data, an increase in the depth of match analysis and the inclusion of the weekly meeting with the use of video compared to the previous season. These results expose the benefits of coaches incorporate programmes to obtain objective information about the game in their training process.

Characteristics of Serve, Reception and Set That Determine the Setting Efficacy in Men's Volleyball.

The aim of this investigation was to establish the criteria of service, reception and set that determine setting efficacy in world-class top-level volleyball. The study sample consisted of 4.113 gaming actions (1.371 serve actions, 1.371 reception actions, and 1.371 set actions), corresponding to the observation of four matches for each of the 12 best ranked teams in the Volleyball World Championship - a total of 23 matches. The criteria were: in-game role of the server, serve zone, type of serve, striking technique and serve direction; receiver player, reception zone, and reception efficacy; setting zone, type of set, setting technique, setting efficacy, a set's area, and set tempo. Multinomial logistic regression showed that criteria related to reception (reception efficacy) and to set (setting zone, type of set, a set's area, and set tempo) determined set efficacy. Specifically, positive and negative receptions and settings from acceptable and non-acceptable zones reduced perfect setting. In contrast, the jump set toward zones three and six and the first and second tempo increased perfect setting. Serve criteria did not determine set efficacy. This study can guide trainers and players in the training process.

Variables that Predict Serve Efficacy in Elite Men's Volleyball with Different Quality of Opposition Sets.

The objective of this study was to determine the variables that predicted serve efficacy in elite men's volleyball, in sets with different quality of opposition. 3292 serve actions were analysed, of which 2254 were carried out in high quality of opposition sets and 1038 actions were in low quality of opposition sets, corresponding to a total of 24 matches played during the Men's European Volleyball Championships held in 2011. The independent variables considered in this study were the serve zone, serve type, serving player, serve direction, reception zone, receiving player and reception type; the dependent variable was serve efficacy and the situational variable was quality of opposition sets. The variables that acted as predictors in both high and low quality of opposition sets were the serving player, reception zone and reception type. The serve type variable only acted as a predictor in high quality of opposition sets, while the serve zone variable only acted as a predictor in low quality of opposition sets. These results may provide important guidance in men's volleyball training processes.

Asociación entre la función en juego, toma de decisiones y rendimiento en voleibol / Association between in-game role of the player, decision-making and performance in volleyball

El objetivo de la investigación fue conocer la asociación entre la función en juego con la toma de decisiones y el rendimiento en las diferentes acciones de juego en voleibol (saque, recepción, ataque, bloqueo y defensa). Se analizaron 3.262 acciones de juego (708 de saque, 625 de recepción, 748 de ataque, 710 de bloqueo y 471 de defensa), correspondientes a los cuatro equipos mejor clasificados en el Campeonato del Mundo Masculino Under-21 de voleibol, celebrado en México en 2015. Las variables del estudio fueron: la función en juego (colocador, opuesto, central, líbero y receptor-atacante), la toma de decisiones y el rendimiento en las acciones de juego (saque, recepción, ataque, bloqueo y defensa). Los resultados mostraron asociación significativa entre: la función en juego y la toma de decisiones en bloqueo, y la función en juego y el rendimiento en saque. Esta información puede ser de utilidad en el proceso de entrenamiento en voleibol, poniendo de manifiesto la conveniencia de tratar de optimizar la toma de decisiones de los jugadores centrales en bloqueo, y su rendimiento en la acción de saque

Thee main aim of the research was to determine the association between the in-gamerole and players' decision-making and performance of game actions in volleyball. A total of 3.262 actions were analyzed (708 serves, 625 receptions, 748 attacks, 710 blocks and 471 defenses), in the FIVB Volleyball Men’s U21 World Championship (Russia, Argentina, China and Brazil) that took place in Mexico in 2015. The variables of the study were: in-game role of the player (setter, opposite, middle attacker, libero, and receiver-attacker), decision-making and performance of the game actions (serve, reception, attack, block and defense). The results showed significant association between: in-game role of the player and decision-making of the block, and the in-game role of the player and performance of the serve action. This information could be useful in the training process in volleyball, showing the convenience of improving the decision making of the middle attacker in blocking, and their performance in the serve action

The Cognitive and Motivation Intervention Program in Youth Female Volleyball Players.

This study, grounded in Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2002) was aimed to determine the influence of a cognitive-motivational intervention program, to improve the basic psychological need satisfaction of autonomy and competence, autonomous motivation, procedural knowledge, perceived performance and sport commitment, in youth volleyball players. Participants included 34 Under-19 female volleyball players. A quasi-experimental design was carried out with an experimental group (n = 16; M = 17.45; SD = .45) and a control group (n = 18; M = 16.64; SD = .70). The experimental group followed a multidimensional intervention program comprised of 24 sessions held over three months (two training sessions per week). It was based on two strategies: giving athletes the possibility of choice in specific training tasks (proposing training situations with several action alternatives) and questioning (cognitively involving players through tactical questions). A repeated-measures MANOVA 2 (group: experimental and control) x 2 (time: pre-test and post-test) was used to analyse the effect of Group x Time interaction. The results of the inter-group analysis showed significant differences in the post-test measurement between the experimental group and the control group (in favour of the experimental group) in the variables: basic psychological need satisfaction of autonomy and competence, autonomous motivation, procedural knowledge, perceived performance and sport commitment. Given the relevance of the cognitive-motivational processes, not only for performance but also for sport commitment, this intervention has important implications for sport coaching.

Reasoning and Action: Implementation of a Decision-Making Program in Sport.

The objective of this study was to apply a decision training programme, based on the use of video-feedback and questioning, in real game time, in order to improve decision-making in volleyball attack actions. A three-phase quasi-experimental design was implemented: Phase A (pre-test), Phase B (Intervention) and Phase C (Retention). The sample was made up of 8 female Under-16 volleyball players, who were divided into two groups: experimental group (n = 4) and control group (n = 4). The independent variable was the decision training program, which was applied for 11 weeks in a training context, more specifically in a 6x6 game situation. The player had to analyze the reasons and causes of the decision taken. The dependent variable was decision-making, which was assessed based on systematic observation, using the "Game Performance Assessment Instrument" (GPAI) (Oslin, Mitchell, & Griffin, 1998). Results showed that, after applying the decision training program, the experimental group showed a significantly higher average percentage of successful decisions than the control group F(1, 6) = 11.26; p = .015; η2 p = .652; 95% CI [056, 360]. These results highlight the need to complement the training process with cognitive tools such as video-feedback and questioning in order to improve athletes' decision-making.

An Intervention Based on Video Feedback and Questioning to Improve Tactical Knowledge in Expert Female Volleyball Players.

This study applied an intervention program, based on video feedback and questioning, to expert female volleyball players to improve their tactical knowledge. The sample consisted of eight female attackers (26 ± 2.6 years old) from the Spanish National Volleyball Team, who were divided into an experimental group (n = 4) and a control group (n = 4). The video feedback and questioning program applied in the study was developed over eight reflective sessions and consisted of three phases: viewing of the selected actions, self-analysis and reflection by the attacker, and joint player-coach analysis. The attackers were videotaped in an actual game and four clips (situations) of each of the attackers were chosen for each reflective session. Two of the clips showed a correct action by the attacker, and two showed an incorrect decision. Tactical knowledge was measured by problem representation with a verbal protocol. The members of the experimental group showed adaptations in long-term memory, significantly improving their tactical knowledge. With respect to conceptual content, there was an increase in the total number of conditions verbalized by the players; with respect to conceptual sophistication, there was an increase in the indication of appropriate conditions with two or more details; and finally, with respect to conceptual structure, there was an increase in the use of double or triple conceptual structures. The intervention program, based on video feedback and questioning, in addition to on-court training sessions of expert volleyball players, appears to improve the athletes' tactical knowledge.

Effectiveness of a video-feedback and questioning programme to develop cognitive expertise in sport.

The importance within sport expertise of cognitive factors has been emphasised in many research studies. Adaptations that take place in athletes' long-term memories are going to condition their decision-making and performance, and training programmes must be developed that improve these adaptations. In our study, we provide a tactical-cognitive training programme based on video-feedback and questioning in order to improve tactical knowledge in tennis players and verify its effect when transferred to athletes' decision-making. 11 intermediate tennis players participated in this study (12.9 ± 0.7 years old), distributed into two groups (experimental, n = 5; control, n = 6). Tactical knowledge was measured by problem representation and strategy planning with a verbal protocol. Decision-making was measured by a systematic observation instrument. Results confirm the effectiveness of a combination of video-feedback and questioning on cognitive expertise, developing adaptations in long-term memory that produce an improvement in the quality of tactical knowledge (content, sophistication and structure). This, in turn, is transferred to the athletes' decision-making capacity, leading to a higher percentage of successful decisions made during game play. Finally, we emphasise the need to develop effective programmes to develop cognitive expertise and improve athletes' performance, and include it in athletes' formative stages.

Analysis of the relationship between the amount of training and cognitive expertise. A study of young volleyball players.

The main goal of this research was to analyze the relationship between the amount of practice accumulated in training and the level of cognitive expertise achieved by volleyball players who are still in training. Another goal was to determine the number of training hours per week needed to improve knowledge significantly. The study's sample was composed of 520 volleyball players between the ages of 12 and 16 years. The independent variable was the amount of training, defined as the number of weekly hours that the volleyball player devoted to training. The dependent variable was cognitive expertise, measured by declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. A univariate analysis of variance was done to examine the relationship between the number of weekly hours and the declarative and procedural knowledge reached by volleyball players in the athletic formation training stages. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. There were significant differences in knowledge according to the number of weekly training hours (p < 0.001). These results confirm that there is a relationship between the quantity of practice and the development of cognitive expertise. It is recommended that young players dedicate at least 4 hours weekly to training to achieve a significant improvement in cognitive expertise.

Tactical knowledge in tennis: a comparison of two groups with different levels of expertise.

Differences in the tactical knowledge of tennis players are described using the expert-novice approach to examine problem representation and strategy planning in 6 pre-professionals and 6 intermediate tennis players, by means of the McPherson and Thomas protocol for analysing verbal reports during game play. Statistical analyses indicated significant differences in conceptual content, structure, and sophistication. These pre-professional tennis players had greater, more elaborated, and sophisticated tactical knowledge; with expertise, more complex structures are developed in long-term memory. Specific training programmes to improve tennis players' tactical knowledge and cognitive skills may be desirable.

Analysis of declarative and procedural knowledge in volleyball according to the level of practice and players' age.

The main objective of the research was to analyse the cognitive expertise of volleyball players, according to their level of practice and age, as well as to verify the existing difference in the knowledge of individuals of the same age but with different levels of practice. The study sample was comprised of 535 individuals ages 12 to 16 years. The independent variables were the level of practice, i.e., playing category in training and in competition (Under-14 and Under-16), and the age. The dependent variables were declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. An analysis of variance was performed to examine the influence of the level of practice on the declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge of the volleyball players in training stages. There were significant differences both in declarative knowledge and in procedural knowledge according to level of practice. Significant differences were also observed between consecutive ages at different levels of practice. These results show that the level of practice in training and competition is a more relevant factor than the change of age in development of specific knowledge of the sport.

Elaboración de herramientas cognitivas para la detección, seguimiento y optimización de talentos deportivos en voleibol / Development of cognitive tools for detection, tracking and optimization of sports talents in volleyball

El objetivo de la investigación fue conocer el perfil cognitivo de jugadoras de voleibol expertas, en la acción de saque, con la intención de elaborar a partir del mismo, herramientas cognitivas que orienten la detección, formación y optimización de jóvenes talentos deportivos en voleibol. La muestra de estudio estuvo compuesta por 13 jugadoras de la Selección Nacional Absoluta Femenina de Voleibol. Las variables de estudio fueron: el conocimiento procedimental, la toma de decisiones y el rendimiento, todas ellas evaluadas en la acción de saque. Las técnicas de recogida de datos empleadas fueron la entrevista y la observación sistemática. Los resultados muestran un conocimiento procedimental próximo al perfil experto en la sofisticación conceptual (lo que implica que las jugadoras adaptan y modifican sus interpretaciones a las distintas acciones de juego) pero no en el contenido y estructura conceptual. Consideramos que estos resultados están relacionados con el planteamiento estratégico empleado por el equipo en la acción de saque, caracterizado por el marcaje y decisión de la bloqueadora central del lugar de envío y características del saque que debe ser realizado por la sacadora. De acuerdo con ello, el subconcepto de condición referido fundamentalmente por las jugadoras es marcaje de las bloqueadoras centrales. Existen correlaciones significativas entre toma de decisiones y rendimiento, y entre rendimiento y nivel de calidad 3 en la sofisticación conceptual. De este modo, la verbalización minuciosa de las condiciones que acontecen en las distintas acciones de juego, podría presentarse como un indicador de rendimiento en el deporte. Sin embargo, consideramos conveniente realizar más estudios en este sentido para confirmar los citados hallazgos (AU)

The purpose of this research was to determine the serve cognitive profile of experts volleyball players to develop cognitive tools to guide the detection, training and optimization of young sport talents in volleyball. The simple of this study consisted of 13 players of the Women’s National Volleyball Team. The variables studied were: procedural knowledge, decision making and performance, in volleyball serve. The data collection techniques used were interviews and systematic observation. The results show a profile close to procedural knowledge expert in conceptual sophistication (which implies that the players adapt and adjust their interpretations to different game actions) but not in the content and conceptual structure. We believe that these results are related to the team’s strategic plan when serving, which is characterized by the marking and the decision of the midblocker about the serve direction and the kind of serve that should be done by the server. Accordingly, the players relate primarily to subconcept condition “marking of central players”. There are significant correlations between decision making and performance, between performance and quality level 3 on the conceptual sophistication. So, verbalization conditions that occur in the differents game actions, there could be an indicator of performance in sport. However, further studies should consider in this regard to confirm the above findings (AU)

Relation between in-game role and service characteristics in elite women's volleyball.

The aim of this study was to determine whether the in-game role of players (setter, outside, middle, or opposite player) in elite women's volleyball is significantly related to the characteristics of their service. The sample consisted of 1,300 service deliveries (total serves for all matches) made by players in the 8 teams participating in 2 Final 4 stages of the Indesit European Champions League. The variables recorded were in-game role of the server, service type, speed of delivery, service area, target zone, and effectiveness of delivery. Results showed a significant relation between the server's in-game role and service type (p