Isothiazolone emissions from building products.

Adding biocides to dispersion products is a well-known practice to control microbial deterioration. Isothiazolones are among the most commonly used preservatives, in particular a mixture of 2-methyl-2H-isothiazol-3-one (MIT) and 5-chloro-2-methyl-2H-isothiazol-3-one (CIT). In recent years, for health reasons, due to its strong sensitizing effect, CIT has been replaced by 1,2-benzisothiazol-3-one (BIT). Furthermore, numerous products are now available for interiors containing the fungicidal active substance 2-octyl-2H-isothiazol-3-one (OIT). So far nearly nothing is known of the emission behavior of BIT and OIT. An analytical method was developed for these two isothiazolones and interior products containing BIT respectively OIT have been investigated in an emission chamber and in test rooms. The chamber tests revealed maximum concentrations of 6.7 µg OIT/m3, 1.9 µg BIT/m3, and 187 µg MIT/m3. Concentrations obtained in the test rooms were at levels up to 1.4 µg OIT/m3 and 29 µg MIT/m3. A noticeable finding was the very slight subsidence of OIT and BIT levels over several weeks. While MIT outgassed quickly, OIT in particular showed low concentrations, but prolonged evaporation.

Estimating human indoor exposure to elemental mercury from broken compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs).

UNLABELLED: The 2008 EU regulation, which prohibits conventional incandescent light bulbs, is to be implemented in phases, completing in 2012. One of the possible substitutes is the compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), which, however, does contain up to 5 mg of mercury in its elemental or amalgamated form. The question arises as to the possible exposure of individuals to mercury as a result of lamp breakage during operation or when disconnected from the power supply. Therefore, an apparatus was built to shatter CFLs and drop the shards onto glycol-modified polyethylene terephthalate, a carpeted floor, or laminate floor under defined climatic parameters and operating conditions. Six CFLs of different types and mercury content were studied. After the breakage of a common CFL containing liquid mercury, concentrations up to 8000 ng/m(3) were reached in the chamber. Much lower peak values were obtained with amalgam-type lamps (414 ng/m(3)) or with lamps with a shatter-proof coating (60 ng/m(3)). It was found that ventilation can considerably reduce the indoor air concentration within 20 min. Acute health effects would only be expected if the mercury is not removed immediately. Careful collection and disposal of the lamp fragments would also prevent dwellers from the risk of long-term exposure. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: After accidental breakage of a compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) indoors, dwellers could be exposed to high mercury concentrations. From the results of our studies in test chambers and real rooms using different lamp types and scenarios, it was possible to estimate the possible human uptake of mercury by inhalation. Immediate action is important to reduce indoor mercury concentrations to a minimum level. The first step is to maximize ventilation followed by careful collection of spilled mercury.

[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in an indoor environment. Sources, exposure and risk evaluation]. / Polyzyklische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe (PAH) im InnenraumQuellen, Exposition und gesundheitliche Bewertung.

In recent years, the use of tar-containing parquet glue led to intensive discussion because of the health effects associated with indoor pollution caused by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) contained in these materials. In addition to environmental tobacco smoke, fossil and organic fuels in stoves, cookers, firesides and other combustion processes contribute to the build up of PAH in the indoor environment. However, food remains to be the greatest source of PAH exposure to man; >90% of the daily PAH intake is food related. In the present review, an attempt will be made to throw light on the question of whether PAH exposure from indoor air sources may cause health effects.

Low frequency noise and stress: bronchitis and cortisol in children exposed chronically to traffic noise and exhaust fumes.

A correlation of respiratory diseases to traffic related air pollution and noise was observed in an interview study. Since in that study the exposure was subjectively assessed, in the present field study nitrogen dioxide as indicator for vehicle exhausts and the mean night-time noise level were measured outside the children's windows in representative locations. Based on these measurements each child was placed in one of the following categories: low, medium or high traffic immission (ambient emissions). The physician contacts due to bronchitis of 68 children were assessed retrospectively from the files of the participating paediatricians. Saliva samples were collected from all children and the cortisol concentration was estimated. Children under high noise exposure (L(night, 8h) = 54-70dB(A)) had in comparison to all other children significantly increased morning saliva cortisol concentrations, indicating an activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Analysing a subgroup of children without high noise exposure showed, that children with frequent physician contacts due to bronchitis did not have increased morning saliva cortisol. However, multiple regression analysis with stepwise exclusion of variables showed that bronchitis was correlated more closely to morning salvia cortisol than to traffic immissions. On the other hand, the rate of physician contacts due to bronchitis increased in a dose dependent manner and significantly with increasing traffic immissions. From these results it can be concluded that high exposure to traffic noise, especially at nighttime, activates the HPA axis and this leads in the long term to an aggravation of bronchitis in children. This seems to be more important than the effect of exhaust fumes on bronchitis symptoms. The results of the present study should be subjected to further investigation using specially designed studies.

Concentrations and decay rates of ozone in indoor air in dependence on building and surface materials.

The decay of ozone in indoor air was measured in a closed chamber after contact with different building materials and residential surfaces. The tested materials were: vinyl wall paper, woodchip paper, plywood, latex paint, fitted carpet, and plaster. In the summer of 1996, the entry of ozone from ambient air into indoor air during ventilation and the ozone decay in indoor air, after windows had been closed again, were studied. Measurements were done in a residential house on the outskirts of Berlin. The following results were gained: the chamber measurements showed a decay of ozone after contact with most of the materials put inside the chamber. Higher decay rates have been obtained for wall papers, plywood, fitted carpet and plaster. As described in the literature, ozone is able to react with olefines inside the materials and is able to form formaldehyde and other components. This formation of formaldehyde could also be confirmed in our investigations. Thus, in most cases, the formaldehyde concentrations were lower than the German guideline value of 0.1 ppm. The formation of formaldehyde could be prevented when a special wall paper that was coated with activated carbon was used. In the house, a complete ozone diffusion into indoor air took place during ventilation within 30 min. After closing the windows, the ozone concentrations decreased to the basic level before ventilation within 60-90 min.

Indoor air pollution by different heating systems: coal burning, open fireplace and central heating.

Investigations of indoor air pollution by different heating systems in private homes are described. Sixteen homes, 7 with coal burning, 1 with open fireplace (wood burning) and 8 with central heating have been investigated. We measured the concentrations of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and sedimented dust in indoor air, of total suspended particulates, heavy metals and of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in indoor and outdoor air. Measurements were taken during winter (heating period) and during summer (non-heating period). Generally, we found higher indoor air pollution in homes with coal burning and open fireplace than in homes with central heating. Especially, the concentrations of carbon monoxide, sedimented dust and of some heavy metals were higher. In one case, we found also high indoor air pollution in a home with central heating. This apartment is on the ground floor of a block of flats, and the central heating system in the basement showed a malfunctioning of the exhaust system.

Photochemical decomposition of organic compounds in water after UV-irradiation: investigation of positive mutagenic effects.

It should be investigated whether UV-disinfection of natural and contaminated organic substances in surface and drinking water may generate a positive mutagenic effect. Selected organic pesticides (atrazine, simazine, metobromurone, methabenzthiazurone, dichlorprop) and organic compounds naturally present in water (phenylalanine, tyrosine, polysaccharides) were examined in Ames-test (bacterial strains TA 98 and TA 100) and sister chromatid exchange (SCE)-test (V79 cells) before and after UV-irradiation. UV-irradiation with low- and high-pressure mercury vapor lamps was carried out in parallel experiments. Based on results in Ames- and SCE-test a mutagenic activity was not obtained for all samples, neither before nor after UV-irradiation.

[Chemical and biological characterization of electrofilter dust from a waste incinerating plant. 2. Mutagenic activity of organic extracts and their subfractions and determination of the PAH content]. / Chemische und biologische Charakterisierung des Elektrofilterstaubes einer Müllverbrennungsanlage. 2. Mitteilung: Mutagene Wirksamkeit der organischen Extrakte und deren Teilfraktionen und Bestimmung des PAH-Gehaltes.

In a recent study, we showed that the Soxhlet extraction with toluene and pretreatment with diluted HCl is the best suitable method to remove organic compounds from particles collected by electrostatic precipitation in municipal waste incinerators. In the present paper, the mutagenic activity of the extracts from particulate samples were studied, using strain TA 100 as a tester strain. A small if any mutagenic activity was observed from most of the samples. The highest mutagenic effects were observed at different extract concentrations and without metabolic activation. A fractionation technique was developed and subfractions (dichlormethane and dichlormethane/methanol) were tested for their mutagenic potential and PAH-content. Small amounts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were found, which were concentrated to an extent of 90% on the dichlormethane fraction. The results showed a tendency of reactivity to concentrate in the polar fraction.

[Chemical and biological characterization of electrofilter dusts of a waste incinerator. 1. Comparison of different extraction methods for organic dust contents and their mutagenicity]. / Chemische und biologische Charakterisierung des Elektrofilterstaubes einer Müllverbrennungsanlage. 1. Mitteilung: Vergleich unterschiedlicher Extraktionsmethoden der organischen Staubinhaltsstoffe und deren Mutagenität.

Particles collected by electrostatic precipitation from a municipal waste incinerator were used to study sample extraction methods for the mutagenicity bioassay. The Ames-Salmonella typhimurium plate incorporation method with tester strain TA 100 was employed. A series of organic solvents with different polarities was employed to identify the most efficient solvent for removing mutagens from the ashes: Soxhlet extraction with toluene and pretreatment with diluted HCl; Soxhlet extraction with toluene following 2-ethoxy-ethanol; reflux extraction with toluene: 2-ethoxy-ethanol: HCl conc.; Soxhlet extraction with dichloromethane. The results demonstrate that the amount of extractable mass correlates with the polarity of the solvents; however, the extractable mass did not correlate with the mutagenic activity of the extracts. The Soxhlet extraction with toluene and pretreatment with diluted HCl proved to be the best method for the extraction of mutagenic compounds present in particles collected by electrostatic precipitation from municipal waste incinerators, although it does not remove the maximum amount of extractable organic matter from the particles.

[Polar neutral organic compounds (POCN) in city aerosols. 3. Comparative studies of emission and immission particles in West Berlin]. / Polare neutrale organische Verbindungen (POCN) im Stadtaerosol. 3.Mitteilung: Vergleichende Untersuchungen von Emissions-und Immissionsstäuben in Berlin (West).

After the concentration of the polar organic compounds (= POCN), especially from the neutral fraction, was investigated in urban suspended particulates over a longtime period in Berlin (West) (March 1983-January 1984 at three emission measurement stations loaded by different sources) and some emissions were taken during 1985 from vehicle diesel-engines and private coal firing (domestic fuel) a comparison between all these measurements are given now. The following results were gained: The amount of the ether-extractable organic matter (= EEOM) was higher for the emission samples (less than or equal to 80% of the total suspended particulate matter = TPM) than for the emission measurements (less than or equal to 40% of the TPM). Most of the EEOM was found for particle sizes less than or equal to 1.5-2 micron aerodynamic diameter. Making further separation of the EEOM, then the neutral fraction (= NF) showed the highest percentage of about 60-90% (of the EEOM) for emission measurements and of 60-80% for emission measurements. The values of the acidic fraction (= AF) were with 5-30% (emissions) and 10-25% (emissions). Quite the same results were found for the basic fraction (= BF) with 1-20% (emissions) and 5-20% (emissions). Of the neutral fraction, further separation was done into aliphatic compounds (= AIP), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (= PAH) and polar neutral organic compounds (= POCN). From these compounds, the aliphatics amounted to 30-40% (of the NF) for the vehicle emission measurements and to only 10-20% for the coal firing emissions. The percentages of the PAH and POCN varied and were quite similar with 10-50% (PAH) and 25-50% (POCN). For the emission measurements, the PAH amounted to lower values (5-30%) and the POCN to (30-60%). Some differences between the measurements were found in the gas chromatographic analysis of single PAH and POCN compounds. Then, for the vehicle samples (diesel engines and highway traffic tunnel) higher concentrations were found for perylene and coronene (of the PAH) and for mainly 1-nitropyrene (of the POCN) in comparison with coal firing emissions. There, we found higher concentrations for phenanthrene, benzo(a)pyrene and dibenz(a,h) anthracene (of the PAH) and for 9-fluorenone (of the POCN). The concentration of the nitro-groups containing substances (included in the POCN-fraction) amounted here generally to higher values in comparison with the vehicle emissions (except of 1-nitropyrene).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

[Polar neutral organic compounds (POCN) in city aerosols. 2. Measuring of emissions from domestic fuel and vehicle exhaust and from immission particles in Berlin (West)]. / Polare neutrale organische Verbindungen (POCN) im Stadtaerosol. 2. Mitteilung: Messung der Emissionen von Hausbrand und Kfz. und von Immissionsstäuben in Berlin (West).

During April and May 1985, some emission samples from private coal firing (domestic fuel) were taken and were fired with two different kind of coal (bituminous and brown coal). Also, measurements were done under different combustion conditions (low and high concentrations of oxygenium during the combustion process). In June and November 1985, some emission samples from heavy diesel-engines were taken in a special tunnel equipment, at different engine conditions. During September 1985, also suspended particulates in a highway traffic tunnel were taken. All these samples were taken using high volume cascade impactors which give a fractionation of the suspended particulates into different particle sizes, according to their retention behaviour in the human respiratory system. The results of these emission samples and samples in the highway tunnel were compared with prior immission measurements of urban suspended particulates in Berlin-West, during January 1984. The etherextractable organic matter (= EEOM) of the total suspended particulate matter (= TPM) was determined using ultrasonic extraction method. The EEOM was separated into an acidic (= AF), a basic (= BF) and a neutral fraction (= NF) by dissolution in acidic and basic agents. Of the neutral fraction (NF), further separation was done into aliphatic compounds (= AIP), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (= PAH) and polar neutral organic compounds (POCN) by using thin layer chromatography. From the PAH and POCN, single compounds were identified by gas chromatographic analysis with dual capillary collumns and internal standard method. All organic fractions were tested to their mutagenic activity in the Salmonella typhimurium mammalian microsome bioassay by Ames. The following results were gained: the neutral fraction (NF) made the highest part of the EEOM (greater than or equal to 60%) whereas the part of the AF amounted to 10-25% and of the basic fraction (BF) to approximatively 5-20%. Making further separation of the NF, some differences between the emission sources were gained. Now, the AIP amounted to a percentage of ca. 15% of the NF for coal firing emissions and to ca. 20-40% for diesel-emissions and samples in the highway tunnel. The percentages of the PAH and POCN varied in dependence of the combustion conditions on both emission sources and amounted to 20-50% for the PAH and 30-50% for the POCN. The gas chromatographic analysis showed also differences between the two emission sources. So, for coal firing emissions, higher concentrations for phenanthrene, benzo(a)-pyrene and dibenz(a.h)anthracene (for PAH) and 9-fluorenone (for POCN) were gained.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

[Polar neutral organic compounds in urban aerosols. 1. Chemical characterization and mutagenic effect in relation to various sources]. / Polare neutrale organische Verbindungen (POCN) im Stadtaerosol. 1. Mitteilung: Chemische Charakerisierung und mutagene Wirksamkeit in Abhängigkeit verschiedener Quelleinflüsse.

Airborne particulate matter was collected by high volume samplers at two sampling stations in Berlin (West) between March 1983 and February 1984 (immissions). The stations were choosen so that two main-sources of urban air pollution could be considered (automobile) traffic and private fuel combustion (domesticfuel). Also in February and March 1983 particles were collected from private coal firing (emissions). The collected particles were fractionated into the following particle sizes (immissions, during October 1983-February 1984): greater than 7.2 microns, 7.2-1.5 microns and less than 1.5 micron (aerodynamic diameter). The etherextractable organic matter of the particles (= EEOM) was determined and the organic matter was then separated into acidic, basic, and neutral fractions. The neutral fraction was further separated into aliphatic compounds (= AlP), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (= PAH), and polar neutral compounds (= POCN) by thin layer chromatography. The mutagenic activity of all organic fractions was determined by using the mammalian microsome bioassay by Ames and was compared with the activity of a whole polar organic extract (including POCN, acidic and basic fraction), a whole neutral extract, and a whole ethersoluble organic extract. Also in February 1984 the nitroreductase specific mutagenicity on immission-stations was determined using nitroreductase deficient strains. Some compounds of the POCN-fraction, and of PAH (in comparison) were identified by gas chromatography. The following results were obtained: The neutral fraction of the organic matter amounted to 70-90% of the EEOM (not depending from particle size, immissions and emissions). The separation of the neutral compounds into AlP, PAH and POCN showed a higher amount of AlP at the collecting station which includes mainly automobile traffic. Some cancer and/or mutagenic suspect compounds were identified by the chromatographic analysis of POCN and PAH. A higher amount of several nitrogroups-containing POCN was found at the collecting station which includes mainly private combustion whereas at the station including mainly automobile traffic 1-nitropyrene was the main compound. The POCN-fraction showed the mostly highest mutagenic activity in the Ames bioassay, mainly for lung penetrating particles (less than 1.5 micron diameter). The whole organic extract (EEOM) showed a lower mutagenic activity than the POCN-fraction. Using nitroreductase deficient strains, at the collecting station which includes mainly private fuel combustion a higher reduction of mutagenicity was shown than at the automobile-traffic including measurement station.

[Mutagenic effect of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and polar organic compounds (POC) in urban aerosols]. / Untersuchungen zur mutagenen Wirksamkeit von polycyclischen aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen (PAH) und polaren organischen Verbindungen (POC) im Stadtaerosol.

The concentrations of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and the polar organic fraction (polar organic compounds = POC) as part of the aerosol particles, collected on fiberglass filters with a six-stage high volume cascade impactor from 17.7. to 9.10. 1981 from Berlin (West) air, were determined.--The two fractions were tested for their mutagenicity by using the Salmonella typhimurium bioassay (Ames-test). According to their site of deposition in the human respiratory system the aerosol particles were fractioned into two classes: "A" (Dae = 1.3-10.2 microns) and "B" (Dae = 0.4-1.3 microns). The following data were obtained: 1. The ether extractable organic matter (EEOM) contains 8.9-12.0% PAH and 40.1-65.8% POC. 2. PAH and POC extracted from particles with a Dae:1.3-10.2 microns exhibit nearly the same mutagenic activity after metabolic activation whereas the POC derived from particles with a Dae:0.4-1.3 microns (lung penetrating fraction) result in a higher mutagenicity than the PAH. 3. The POC show a higher mutagenic activity without metabolic activation than the PAH. 4. Generally extracts derived from particles with a Dae:0.4-1.3 microns exhibit higher mutagenic effects than those derived from particles with a Dae:1.3-10.2 microns.