Breastfeeding and human milk bank in a neonatal intensive care unit: impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in an Italian cohort of very low birth weight infants.

BACKGROUND: Parental stress in neonatal intensive care units (NICU) is well known, as is the stress induced by the COVID-19 pandemic. This combination might increase stress to the extent of affecting the availability of maternal expressed milk and the success of establishing breastfeeding. This is particularly relevant in very preterm infants. METHODS: We conducted a single-centre retrospective analysis in two cohorts of very low birth weight infants born in a hospital in Italy. Babies born before the pandemic (September 2017 - December 2019) (n = 101) and during the pandemic (March 2020 - December 2021) (n = 67) were included in the analysis. We compared the rate of babies fed with maternal milk (both expressed and / or donated) at the achievement of full enteral feeding and the rate of those exclusively breastfed at discharge in the two groups. Then, we analysed the impact of donated human milk availability on infant formula use. We also compared mother's need for psychological support during NICU stay and the duration of psychological follow-up after discharge. RESULTS: In our NICU the availability of expressed maternal milk significantly decreased during the COVID-19 pandemic (86.1% before the pandemic vs 44.8% during the pandemic, p < 0.001) at the time of full enteral feeding achievement. Thanks to the availability of donated human milk, the rate of formula-fed babies remained almost unchanged (13.9% vs 14.9%). At discharge, the rate of breastfeeding was similar (73.3% vs 72.7%). The maternal need for psychological support was significantly higher during the pandemic (33% vs 64%, p < 0.001), as well as the duration of follow-up > 6 months (1% vs 15%, p < 0.001). No differences in the main clinical outcomes were found. CONCLUSION: Pandemic-induced stress had a significant impact on the availability of expressed maternal milk in NICU. However, the presence of human donated milk was fundamental in preventing increased use of infant formula during NICU stays. This underlines how strategies to implement the widespread establishment of donor milk banks on a national level are warranted. Further research is desirable to optimise the use of donated human milk banks during emergency situations.

Perinatal Transmission and Outcome of Neonates Born to SARS-CoV-2-Positive Mothers: The Experience of 2 Highly Endemic Italian Regions.

INTRODUCTION: COVID-19 is the disease caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, responsible of the pandemic declared in March 2020 and still ongoing. COVID-19 affects all ages but presents less complications and fatalities in children. Neonatal infections have rarely been reported worldwide, and vertical transmission is uncertain. METHODS: We conducted a prospective cohort study of all infants born to SARS-CoV-2-positive mothers admitted to 2 hospitals in South (Bari) and North (Varese) of Italy from April to December 2020. A molecular nasopharyngeal swab for SARS-CoV-2 using a reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction was made at birth for all enrolled newborns to evaluate vertical transmission of infection. We also evaluated postnatal transmission with a second nasopharyngeal swab made at 1 month of life and described maternal and neonatal clinical findings and short-term outcomes. RESULTS: 176/179 (97%) newborns were SARS-CoV-2 negative at birth and 151/156 (97%) infants were still negative at 1 month of life. All newborns were asymptomatic. Seventy percent of newborns were breastfed during hospitalization. At 1 month of life, 76% of infants were breastfed. CONCLUSION: According to our results, vertical and perinatal infection is very rare. Breastfeeding does not increase the risk of COVID-19 and should be encouraged.

Determinants of breastfeeding discontinuation in an Italian cohort of mother-infant dyads in the first six months of life: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Among breastfeeding determinants, the marketing of breast milk substitutes might contribute to suboptimal breastfeeding rates. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of receiving information on breast milk substitutes on breastfeeding rates. METHODS: We conducted a randomized, single-blind, controlled trial from 2012 to 2014 in a northern Italian maternity ward. We enrolled 802 Caucasian mothers who gave birth to healthy, full-term singletons with a birth weight > 2500 g and who were exclusively breastfeeding from delivery to discharge. Mothers who gave birth to infants with congenital diseases, chromosomal abnormalities, perinatal infections and/or cardio-respiratory instability and/or mothers being affected by endocrine and/or metabolic and/or gastrointestinal and/or renal diseases were excluded. Mothers were randomized to either receive (group A, n = 405) or not (group B, n = 397) written information on a breast milk substitute at discharge. Breastfeeding was promoted and supported in all mother-infant pairs equally. The mode of feeding for up to 6 months after delivery was determined by phone interview. To detect a 10% difference between groups in the discontinuation rate of exclusive breastfeeding at three months of age at 5% significance and 80% power, a total of 356 mother-infant pairs per group were needed. RESULTS: The exclusive breastfeeding prevalence was 91% and 92% at 7 days, 79% and 70% at 1 month, 75% and 66% at 2 months, 72% and 62% at 3 months, and 3% and 2% at 6 months in groups A and B, respectively. The relative risk (95% confidence interval) of exclusive breastfeeding (group A vs B) at 7 days and at 1, 2, 3 and 6 months was as follows: 0.99 (0.95-1.03), 1.12 (1.03-1.21), 1.13 (1.03-1.24), 1.15 (1.04-1.27), and 1.49 (0.62-3.61). Nutritional, lifestyle and lactational factors were the primary contributing determinants to early breastfeeding discontinuation. CONCLUSIONS: The present findings indicate that receiving written information on breast milk substitutes at hospital discharge, provided that breastfeeding support and education are offered, does not negatively affect breastfeeding rates. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT03208114. Registered 5 July 2017.

Correction to: Clinical evaluation of two different protein content formulas fed to full-term healthy infants: a randomized controlled trial.

Following the publication of the original article [1], it was brought to our attention that the authors' names and surnames were erroneously interchanged.

Protein use and weight-gain quality in very-low-birth-weight preterm infants fed human milk or formula.

Background: Nutritional management of preterm infants aims to approximate the tissue growth and body composition of a fetus of the same postmenstrual age. The adequacy of the quality of protein supply can influence the rate and the relative quality of weight gain. Objective: We investigated the protein balance according to feeding regimen and the association between human milk feeding and fat-free mass content at the term-corrected age in very-low-birth-weight preterm infants. Design: A prospective observational study was conducted. Inclusion criteria were as follows: healthy infants, gestational age ≤32 wk, birth weight <1500 g, stable clinical conditions, and feeding by mouth with human milk or formula at discharge. Infants were enrolled at hospital discharge. At enrollment, macronutrient intakes and protein balance were determined. Anthropometric measurements and body composition were also assessed. The nutritional composition of human milk was calculated by infrared spectroscopy. The protein balance was determined according to the nitrogen balance standard method. Body composition was assessed by an air-displacement plethysmography system. At the term-corrected age, anthropometry and body composition assessments were repeated. Results: Seventeen preterm infants fed fortified human milk and 15 preterm infants fed formula were enrolled. At discharge, despite similar macronutrient intakes, infants fed fortified human milk showed a higher nitrogen balance (expressed as mg · kg-1 · d-1) compared with preterm formula-fed infants (mean ± SD: 488.3 ± 75 compared with 409.8 ± 85 mg · kg-1 · d-1, P = 0.009). At term-corrected age, growth was similar in the 2 groups, whereas fortified human milk-fed infants showed a higher percentage of fat-free mass (85.1% ± 2.8% compared with 80.8% ± 3.2%, P = 0.002). Moreover, at multiple linear regression, fat-free mass content was independently associated with being fed human milk (R2 = 0.93, P < 0.0001). Conclusion: Our findings suggest that human milk feeding is associated with early fat-free mass deposition in healthy and stable preterm infants. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03013374.

Clinical evaluation of two different protein content formulas fed to full-term healthy infants: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: A high early protein intake is associated with rapid postnatal weight gain and altered body composition. We aimed to evaluate the safety of a low-protein formula in healthy full-term infants. METHODS: A randomized controlled trial was conducted. A total of 118 infants were randomized to receive two different protein content formulas (formula A or formula B (protein content: 1.2 vs. 1.7 g/100 mL, respectively)) for the first 4 months of life. Anthropometry and body composition by air displacement plethysmography were assessed at enrolment and at two and 4 months. The reference group comprised 50 healthy, exclusively breastfed, full-term infants. RESULTS: Weight gain (g/day) throughout the study was similar between the formula groups (32.5 ± 6.1 vs. 32.8 ± 6.8) and in the reference group (30.4 ± 5.4). The formula groups showed similar body composition but a different fat-free mass content from breastfed infants at two and 4 months. However, the formula A group showed a fat-free mass increase more similar to that of the breastfed infants. The occurrence of gastrointestinal symptoms or adverse events was similar between the formula groups. CONCLUSIONS: Feeding a low-protein content formula appears to be safe and to promote adequate growth, although determination of the long-term effect on body composition requires further study. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The present study was retrospectively registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (trial number: NCT03035721 on January 18, 2017).

Nutritional and metabolic programming during the first thousand days of life.

The latest scientific acquisitions are demonstrating what has already been hypothesized for more than twenty years about the development of the state of health/illness of individuals. Indeed, certain stimuli, if applied to a sensible phase of development, are able to modify, through epigenetic mechanisms, gene expression of DNA, resulting in adaptive modifications of phenotype to the environment, which may reflect negatively on the health of every individual. This concept, applied to nutrition, has opened up important prospects for research in this area. The nutritional history of an individual, linked to the development of a healthy state, would begin very early. In fact, since the pregnancy and for the next two years (for a total of about 1000 days), the maternal eating habits, the type of breastfeeding and then the main stages of nutrition in the evolutionary phase represent those sensitive moments, essential for the development of important endocrine, metabolic, immunological alterations, better known as metabolic syndrome. This condition would represent the physiopathogenetic basis for explaining a series of disorders, known as non communicable diseases (NCDs) such as obesity, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascolar disease and all those conditions that today affect the health of most industrialized countries and through the years are emerging especially in developing countries (South America, Asia), where new environmental conditions and increased food availability are changing food habits, with far-reaching public health impacts. This paper analyzes these new nutritional perspectives and the main implications of what has been termed the 1000-day theory.

Introducing complementary foods in the first year of life.

Introduction of solid foods is a fundamental step in the development of an individual. There are many implications that weaning contains not only on a nutritional plan, but also on the contingent and long-term health of an individual. Over time this nutritional passage has evolved through the acquisition of new knowledge about maturation of anatomical and neurosensory structures involved in all the phases of such a complex process. The understanding of a maturing taste of infant and cultural changes is another key to understand the evolution of introduction of solid foods in infants. What is contained in this text encapsulates thus the evolutionary path of weaning in recent years, showing current trends in the light of cultural changes and new scientific acquisitions.

Does Human Milk Modulate Body Composition in Late Preterm Infants at Term-Corrected Age?

(1) Background: Late preterm infants account for the majority of preterm births and are at risk of altered body composition. Because body composition modulates later health outcomes and human milk is recommended as the normal method for infant feeding, we sought to investigate whether human milk feeding in early life can modulate body composition development in late preterm infants; (2) Methods: Neonatal, anthropometric and feeding data of 284 late preterm infants were collected. Body composition was evaluated at term-corrected age by air displacement plethysmography. The effect of human milk feeding on fat-free mass and fat mass content was evaluated using multiple linear regression analysis; (3) Results: Human milk was fed to 68% of the infants. According to multiple regression analysis, being fed any human milk at discharge and at  term-corrected and being fed exclusively human milk at term-corrected age were positively associated with fat-free mass content(ß = -47.9, 95% confidence interval (CI) = -95.7; -0.18; p = 0.049; ß = -89.6, 95% CI = -131.5; -47.7; p < 0.0001; ß = -104.1, 95% CI = -151.4; -56.7, p < 0.0001); (4) Conclusion: Human milk feeding appears to be associated with fat-free mass deposition in late preterm infants. Healthcare professionals should direct efforts toward promoting and supporting breastfeeding in these vulnerable infants.

Is targeted fortification of human breast milk an optimal nutrition strategy for preterm infants? An interventional study.

BACKGROUND: Fortifying human milk contributes to the prevention of postnatal growth failure in preterm infants. Because of the natural variability of human milk, targeted fortification of human milk has been advocated. However, data regarding the efficacy and safety of prolonged targeted fortification are scarce. We aimed to assess the safety of targeted fortification of human milk in preterm infants compared with standard fortification, as well as the effects on infant growth. METHODS: We conducted an interventional study during hospital stay in healthy very low birth weight preterm infants who were exclusively fed human milk. Pools of human milk collected for 24 h were analysed using mid-infrared transmission spectroscopy. Targeted fortification of human milk was performed by adding macronutrients to native human milk to obtain optimal ratios of fat (4.4 g), carbohydrates (8.8 g), and protein (3 g) per 100 ml. The intervention period lasted 4-7 weeks. Weekly weight and daily growth rates were compared with those of a standardized fortification group of very low birth weight preterm infants who received standard fortified human milk (n = 10). The osmolality as well as the metabolic and gastrointestinal tolerance were monitored. Intergroup differences were evaluated using the Mann-Whitney U-test. RESULTS: A total of 10 preterm infants (birth weight 1223 ± 195 g; gestational age 29.1 ± 1.03 weeks) were enrolled and 118 samples of pooled milk were analysed. On average, 1.4 ± 0.1 g of protein, 2.3 ± 0.5 g of carbohydrate, and 0.3 ± 0.1 g of fat per 100 ml were added to the milk. Osmolality values after target fortification were within recommended limits (376 ± 66 mOsml/kg). Weekly weight gain (205.5 g; 95 % CI 177-233 vs 155 g; 95 % CI 132-178; p = 0.025) and daily growth rates (15.7 g/kg/day; 95 % CI 14.5-16.9 vs 12.3 g/kg/day; 95 % CI 10.7-13.9; p = 0.005) were higher in infants receiving target fortification than in infants receiving standardized fortification. The infants receiving targeted fortified milk consumed similar volumes as infants in the standardized fortification group (148 ± 4.5 vs 146 ± 4 ml/kg/day). No signs of either gastrointestinal or metabolic intolerance were observed. CONCLUSIONS: Target fortification appears to promote growth in very low birth weight preterm infants without any detrimental effects. Trial registration NCT02716337.

Body composition in late preterm infants according to percentile at birth.

BACKGROUND: The data on body composition of late preterm infants, evaluated according to percentile at birth, are scarce. The study aimed to investigate body composition of late preterm infants, according to percentile at birth, and to compare their body composition with that of term newborns. METHODS: A total of 122 (99 appropriate and 23 small for gestational age (SGA)) late preterm infants underwent growth and body composition assessment using an air displacement plethysmography system on the fifth day of life and at term. The reference group was composed of 42 healthy, term, breast-fed infants. RESULTS: At birth, appropriate and SGA late preterm infants had lower fat mass and fat-free mass indexes than term newborns. The fat mass and fat-free mass content increased significantly throughout the study, irrespective of percentile at birth. At term, fat mass index, but not fat-free mass index, was higher in both appropriate and SGA late preterm infants than in term newborns. CONCLUSION: Late preterm infants, irrespective of their percentile at birth, show postnatal growth characterized by predominant fat mass accretion. The potential long-term health clinical implications of these findings need to be further elucidated.

Is nutritional support needed in late preterm infants?

BACKGROUND: Late preterm birth accounts for 70 % of all preterm births. While the impact of feeding problems in very preterm infants has been widely investigated, data on late preterm infants' feeding issues are scarce. The aim of the present study was to investigate the need of nutritional support during hospital stay in a cohort of late preterm infants and to identify the factors that most contribute to its occurrence. METHODS: We analyzed the medical records of late preterm infants, born 2011-2013, admitted to a single institution. Neonatal data, the need for nutritional support, defined as the need for parenteral nutrition or intravenous fluids or tube feeding, and the feeding status at discharge were retrieved. The occurrence of respiratory distress syndrome, congenital malformations/chromosomal diseases, cardiac diseases, sepsis, hypoglycemia, poor feeding and the need for surgical intervention were also collected. RESULTS: A total of 1768 late preterm infants were included. Among the 592 infants requiring a nutritional support, 228 developed a respiratory distress syndrome, two developed a sepsis, one presented with a cardiac disease, 24 underwent a surgical intervention, eight had a chromosomal disease/congenital malformation, 80 had hypoglycemia. In addition, 100 infants required nutritional support due to poor feeding and 149 were born small for gestational age. Birth weight ≤2000 g (adjusted OR = 12.2, 95 % CI 7.5-19.9, p < 0.0001), gestational age of 34 weeks (adjusted OR = 4.08, 95 % CI 2.8-5.9, p < 0.0001), being small for gestational age (adjusted OR = 2.17, 95 % CI 2.8-5.9, p=0.001), having a respiratory distress syndrome (adjusted OR = 79.6, 95 % CI 47.2-134.3, p < 0.0001) and the need of surgical intervention (adjusted OR = 49.4, 95 % CI 13.9-174.5, p < 0.0001) were associated with a higher risk of need of nutritional support during hospital stay. CONCLUSIONS: Late preterm infants are at relatively high risk of requiring nutritional support during hospital stay, especially if they have a birth weight ≤2000 g, a gestational age of 34 weeks, are born small for gestational age, develop a respiratory distress syndrome and require a surgical intervention. The present findings add to the knowledge of late preterm infants' feeding issues and may contribute to tailoring nutritional approaches for these infants.

The role of nutrition in promoting growth in pre-term infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a prospective non-randomised interventional cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Pre-term infants who develop bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) are at risk of postnatal growth failure. It has been reported that energy expenditure is higher in infants with BPD than in those without BPD. The aim of the study was to evaluate whether increasing the enteral energy intake of pre-term infants with BPD can improve post-natal growth. METHODS: This prospective, non-randomised interventional cohort study was designed to assess growth in 57 preterm infants with BPD (gestational age <32 weeks, birth weight <1500 g, and persistent oxygen dependency for up to 28 days of life) fed individually tailored fortified breast milk and/or preterm formula, and a historical control group of 73 pre-term infants with BPD fed breast milk fortified in accordance with the instructions of the manufacturer and/or pre-term formula. Between-group differences in the continuous variables were analysed using Student's t test or the Mann-Whitney test; the discrete variables were compared using the chi-squared test. Linear regression analysis was used to investigate the independent contribution of enteral energy intake to weight gain velocity. RESULTS: The duration of parenteral nutrition was similar in the historical and intervention groups (43.7 ± 30.9 vs 39.6 ± 17.4 days). After the withdrawal of parenteral nutrition, enteral energy intake was higher in the infants in the intervention group with mild or moderate BPD (131 ± 6.3 vs 111 ± 4.6 kcal/kg/day; p < 0.0001) and in those with severe BPD (126 ± 5.3 vs 105 ± 5.1 kcal/kg/day; p < 0.0001), whereas enteral protein intake was similar (3.2 ± 0.27 vs 3.1 ± 0.23 g/kg/day).Weight gain velocity was greater in the infants in the intervention group with mild or moderate BPD (14.7 ± 1.38 vs 11.5 ± 2 g/kg/day, p < 0.0001) and in those with severe BPD (11.9 ± 2.9 vs 8.9 ± 2.3 g/kg/day; p < 0.007). The percentage of infants with post-natal growth retardation at 36 weeks of gestational age was higher in the historical group (75.3 vs 47.4; p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: On the basis of the above findings, it seems that improved nutritional management promotes post-natal ponderal growth in pre-term infants with BPD.

Formula-fed infants have significantly higher fat-free mass content in their bodies than breastfed babies.

AIM: Early nutrition may affect body composition development. This study assessed body composition changes in healthy term infants in the first four months of life, comparing the results for breastfed and formula-fed babies. METHODS: A longitudinal, observational study was conducted with healthy term infants, who had a birth weight of more than 2500 g and were aged up to 3 weeks at enrolment. Infants were either exclusively breastfed or formula-fed. Growth and body composition were assessed by air-displacement plethysmography at enrolment and 4 months. RESULTS: A total of 158 infants were enrolled (72 exclusively breastfed and 86 exclusively formula-fed). Body composition was similar between the two feeding groups at enrolment, but fat-free mass (4831 ± 538 g vs 4641 ± 461 g; p = 0.036) at 4 months and the fat-free mass changes between enrolment and 4 months (80.3 ± 16.4% vs 67.6 ± 18.4%; p < 0.001) were higher in formula-fed infants than breastfed ones. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that formula-fed infants show different body composition development during the first 4 months of life to breastfed ones, with higher fat-free mass content.

A case of meningitis due to varicella zoster virus reactivation in an immunocompetent child.

BACKGROUND: The development of neurological complications due to varicella zoster virus (VZV) reactivation is relatively uncommon, particularly in the case of immunocompetent patients. Only a few cases have been described in the literature, most of which involved adult or elderly patients. CLINICAL PRESENTATION: Two days after his pediatrician had diagnosed herpes zoster and prescribed oral acyclovir 400 mg three times a day, a 14-year-old boy was admitted to our hospital because of mild fever, severe headache, slowness, drowsiness and vomiting. A cerebrospinal fluid examination was performed and showed an increased protein concentration (95 mg/dL), normal glucose level (48 mg/dL; blood glucose level, 76 mg/dL) and lymphocytic pleocytosis (1,400 lymphocytes/µL), and VZV DNA was detected by means of polymerase chain reaction (1,250 copies/mL). The results of immunological screening for HIV, lymphocyte subpopulation counts, serum immunoglobulin and complement (C3 and C4) levels, vaccine responsiveness and lymphocytes stimulation tests were unremarkable. Acyclovir was administered intravenously at a dose of 10 mg/kg three times a day and continued for 10 days. The therapy was highly effective and the patient's clinical condition rapidly improved: fever disappeared after two days, and all of the signs and symptoms of neurological involvement after four days. The skin lesions resolved in about one week, and no pain or dysesthesia was ever reported. Given the favourable evolution of the illness, the child was discharged without further therapy after the 10-day treatment. The findings of a magnetic resonance examination immediately after the discontinuation of the antiviral therapy were normal, and a control examination carried out about four weeks later did not find any sign or symptom of disease. CONCLUSION: VZV reactivation can also lead to various neurological complications in immunocompetent children. Prompt therapy with acyclovir and the integrity of the immune system are important in conditioning outcome, but other currently unknown factors probably also play a role.

Implementation of nutritional strategies decreases postnatal growth restriction in preterm infants.

BACKGROUND: Prevention of postnatal growth restriction of very preterm infants still represents a challenge for neonatologists. As standard feeding regimens have proven to be inadequate. Improved feeding strategies are needed to promote growth. Aim of the present study was to evaluate whether a set of nutritional strategies could limit the postnatal growth restriction of a cohort of preterm infants. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We performed a prospective non randomized interventional cohort study. Growth and body composition were assessed in 102 very low birth weight infants after the introduction of a set of nutritional practice changes. 69 very low birth weight infants who had received nutrition according to the standard nutritional feeding strategy served as a historical control group. Weight was assessed daily, length and head circumference weekly. Body composition at term corrected age was assessed using an air displacement plethysmography system. The cumulative parenteral energy and protein intakes during the first 7 days of life were higher in the intervention group than in the historical group (530 ± 81 vs 300 ± 93 kcal/kg, p<0.001 and 21 ± 2.9 vs 15 ± 3.2 g/kg, p<0.01). During weaning from parenteral nutrition, the intervention group received higher parental/enteral energy and protein intakes than the historical control group (1380 ± 58 vs 1090 ± 70 kcal/kg; 52.6 ± 7 vs 42.3 ± 10 g/kg, p<0.01). Enteral energy (kcal/kg/d) and protein (g/kg/d) intakes in the intervention group were higher than in the historical group (130 ± 11 vs 100 ± 13; 3.5 ± 0.5 vs 2.2 ± 0.6, p<0.01). The negative changes in z score from birth to discharge for weight and head circumference were significantly lower in the intervention group as compared to the historical group. No difference in fat mass percentage between the intervention and the historical groups was found. CONCLUSIONS: The optimization and the individualization of nutritional intervention promote postnatal growth of preterm infants without any effect on percentage of fat mass.

Growth and fat-free mass gain in preterm infants after discharge: a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether the consumption of a nutrient-enriched formula after hospital discharge determines different growth and weight gain composition in preterm infants according to intra- and extrauterine growth pattern. METHODS: Two hundred seven preterm infants were randomized at term-corrected age to receive treatment A (term formula) or B (nutrient-enriched formula) up to 6 months of corrected age, using 2 computer-generated randomization lists, 1 for adequate for gestational age (AGA) and 1 for small for gestational age (SGA) infants. Infants were weaned according to our clinical practice after 6 months' corrected age. Anthropometric parameters and body composition by an air displacement plethysmography system were assessed at term and 1, 3, and 6 months' corrected age. Anthropometric parameters were also assessed at 12 months. RESULTS: Protein intakes were higher in infants receiving treatment B than in infants receiving treatment A at each study point. There were no differences between the feeding groups in weight and length SD scores in either the AGA and SGA group through the study. The mean head circumference values were higher in AGA infants receiving treatment B than in AGA infants receiving treatment A at 6 and 12 months, whereas at 6 months, the percentage of fat mass was lower. No difference in body composition was detected among SGA infants through the study. CONCLUSIONS: This randomized controlled trial demonstrates the beneficial effect of the consumption of a nutrient-enriched formula after hospital discharge by AGA infants both in terms of head circumference growth and fat-free mass gain.

Body composition in newborn infants: 5-year experience in an Italian neonatal intensive care unit.

The aim of nutrition in neonatology is to achieve a healthy growth that mimics, both in terms of growth rates and quality of growth, that of a normal fetus of the same gestational age. In addition, providing an optimal amount and quality of nutrients significantly contributes to the attainment of a neurodevelopment similar to that of an infant born at term. Yet, a high risk of developing metabolic syndrome in relation to aggressive nutrition and accelerated postnatal growth velocity has been reported in former preterm infants. Considering the strict interrelationship that exists between early nutrition, growth, and subsequent health, the development of body composition in early infancy, in terms of fat mass, may contribute to the long-term "programming" process. Hence, accurate and non-invasive measurement of infant body composition, which evaluates the quality in addition to the amount of weight gain, represents a useful tool for gaining further insight into the relationship between birth weight or time in utero and future development. Preterm infants, including those born small for gestational age, have been reported to develop an increased and/or aberrant adiposity, in addition to postnatal growth retardation, when assessed at term-corrected age. However, within the first 5 months, preterm infants, either born adequate or small for gestational age, show a recovery of fat mass, and attain fat mass values comparable to those of full-term infants assessed at birth. The metabolic consequences of these findings on the long-term health need to be further clarified.

Rapid recovery of fat mass in small for gestational age preterm infants after term.

BACKGROUND: Preterm small for gestational age (SGA) infants may be at risk for increased adiposity, especially when experiencing rapid postnatal weight gain. Data on the dynamic features of body weight and fat mass (FM) gain that occurs early in life is scarce. We investigated the postnatal weight and FM gain during the first five months after term in a cohort of preterm infants. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Changes in growth parameters and FM were prospectively monitored in 195 infants with birth weight ≤1500 g. The infants were categorized as born adequate for gestational age (AGA) without growth retardation at term (GR-), born AGA with growth retardation at term (GR+), born SGA. Weight and FM were assessed by an air displacement plethysmography system. At five months, weight z-score was comparable between the AGA (GR+) and the AGA (GR-), whereas the SGA showed a significantly lower weight.The mean weight (g) differences (95% CI) between SGA and AGA (GR-) and between SGA and AGA (GR+) infants at 5 months were -613 (-1215; -12) and -573 (-1227; -79), respectively. At term, the AGA (GR+) and the SGA groups showed a significantly lower FM than the AGA (GR-) group. In the first three months, change in FM was comparable between the AGA (GR+) and the SGA groups and significantly higher than that of the AGA (GR-) group.The mean difference (95% CI) in FM change between SGA and AGA (GR-) and between AGA (GR+) and AGA (GR-) from term to 3 months were 38.6 (12; 65); and 37.7 (10; 65). At three months, the FM was similar in all groups. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggests that fetal growth pattern influences the potential to rapidly correct anthropometry whereas the restoration of fat stores takes place irrespective of birth weight. The metabolic consequences of these findings need to be elucidated.

Quality of growth in exclusively breast-fed infants in the first six months of life: an Italian study.

Nutrition in early life, growth, and subsequent health over a lifetime are significantly interrelated. The aim of this study was to assess body composition changes in exclusively breast-fed infants from birth up to 6 mo of age. An observational, prospective, cohort study was conducted. Fifty-nine full-term, healthy, exclusively breast-fed infants underwent assessment of growth and body composition, using air-displacement plethysmograph (i.e. PEA POD) by Life Measurement, Inc. (Concord, CA). Body composition was assessed at birth, 2 wk, and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 mo of age. Mean birth weight (g) and gestational age (wk) of the infants were 3170 ± 420 and 39.21 ± 1.29, respectively. Percentage of fat mass increased significantly over the first 4 mo (p < 0.001), both in boys and girls, with no differences detected between boys and girls at any time point. This article provides preliminary in-depth data on whole-body composition, in exclusively breast-fed infants during the first months of life. Further studies assessing larger sample sizes are desirable to develop reference body composition data.