The association of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status on the severity of menopause symptoms: a study of 68,864 women.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate if and how race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES) are associated with the severity of menopause symptoms in a large, diverse sample of women. METHODS: For this cross-sectional study conducted between March 24, 2019, and January 13, 2023, a total of 68,864 women were enrolled from the Evernow online telehealth platform. Participants underwent a clinical intake survey, which encompassed demographic information, detailed medical questionnaires, and a modified Menopause Rating Scale. The modified scale was adapted for ease of use online and is available in the supplementary material along with the full intake. Symptom severity was evaluated using a multivariate binomial generalized linear model, accounting for factors such as race, ethnicity, age, body mass index, smoking status, bilateral oophorectomy status, and SES. Odds ratios (OR) and CIs were calculated based on the linear regression coefficients. RESULTS: Of the participants, 67,867 (98.6%) were included in the analysis after excluding outliers and those with unknown oophorectomy status. The majority of respondents identified as White (77.4%), followed by Hispanic (9.0%), Black (6.7%), two or more races/ethnicities (4.4%), Asian (1.2%), Indigenous/First Nations (0.8%), Middle Eastern (0.3%), and South Asian (0.2%). Notably, individuals identifying as Black (hot flashes OR, 1.91; 97.5% CI, 1.75-2.09; P < 0.001), Hispanic (skin/hair changes OR, 1.58; 97.5% CI, 1.45-1.71; P < 0.001), Indigenous/First Nations (painful sex OR, 1.39; 97.5% CI, 1.19-2.75; P = 0.007), Middle Eastern (weight changes OR, 2.22; 97.5% CI, 1.25-4.37; P = 0.01), or with two or more races/ethnicities (skin/hair changes OR, 1.41; 97.5% CI, 1.26-1.58; P < 0.001) reported higher levels of symptom severity compared with their White counterparts. Conversely, Asian and South Asian participants reported lower symptom severity. Even after incorporating SES into the linear model, racial and ethnic groups with lower SES (Black, Hispanic, Indigenous, and multiple ethnicities) exhibited slight shifts in OR while maintaining high statistical significance (Black [hot flashes OR, 1.87; 97.5% CI, 1.72-2.04; P < 0.001], Hispanic [skin/hair changes OR, 1.54; 97.5% CI, 1.42-1.68; P < 0.001], Indigenous/First Nations [painful sex OR, 1.74; 97.5% CI, 1.17-2.70; P = 0.009], multiple ethnicities [skin/hair changes OR, 1.41; 97.5% CI, 1.26-1.58; P < 0.001]). CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that the relationship between race and ethnicity and the severity of menopause symptoms is not solely explained by differences in SES but is itself an independent factor. Understanding and addressing social, cultural, and economic factors are crucial to reduce disparities in menopausal symptoms.

Factors Associated with Provider Counseling Against Breastfeeding in the Setting of Marijuana Use: A Population-Based Survey.

INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this study was to explore patient demographic factors associated with counseling against breastfeeding and concurrent marijuana use. METHODS: A cross-sectional study derived using data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention administered Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) in collaboration with state and local health departments. This study sample included survey participants whose responses indicate they received counseling discouraging breastfeeding with concurrent marijuana use. Bivariate and multivariate regression analyses assessed the relationship between factors associated with counseling against breastfeeding and concurrent marijuana use. RESULTS: Of the 10,911 participants in this sample, 9,695 participants who answered the question about receiving counseling discouraging breastfeeding while using marijuana were included in the analysis (89% response rate for the total sample). Twenty nine percent of participants were advised by a provider not to breastfeed while using marijuana. Participants who received this counseling were more likely to be people of color, age less than or equal to 29, with a high school education or less, unmarried, report governmental or no insurance prepregnancy, and report marijuana use postpartum. In the multivariate analysis, age less than or equal to 20 (P = .001), being unmarried (P = .023), and marijuana use postpartum (P = .034) remained associated with counseling against breastfeeding. DISCUSSION: Our results suggest that individuals are being counseled differently. Unmarried and young people (age <20 years) were more likely to report receiving counseling against breastfeeding with concurrent marijuana use. Given the growing national acceptability of marijuana use, the known benefits of breastfeeding, and the unclear risks of marijuana in human milk, there is a need to standardize counseling to avoid a missed opportunity to educate breastfeeding populations who use marijuana and to reduce the risk of counseling based on providers' personal attitudes and biases not aligned with evidence-based guidelines.

Racial and ethnic differences in self-reported satisfaction with fertility clinics and doctors.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate if differences in self-reported satisfaction with fertility clinics and doctors differ by race/ethnicity. STUDY DESIGN: We used cross-sectional survey data from FertilityIQ online questionnaires completed by patients receiving US. fertility care from July 2015 to December 2020. Univariate and multivariate logistic and linear regression analyses were performed to assess association of race/ethnicity on patient-reported clinic and physician satisfaction. RESULTS: Our total sample size included 21,472 unique survey responses (15,986 Caucasian, 1856 Black, 1780 LatinX, 771 East Asian, 619 South Asian, 273 Middle Eastern, 187 Native American self-reported). When adjusting for potential confounders (demographic and patient satisfaction), we found that Black patients rated their doctors more highly (odds ratio (OR) 1.30, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.04-1.62 p = 0.022 logistic and Coefficient 0.082, 95% CI 0.013-0.15 p = 0.02 linear), while other ethnic groups did not show significant differences compared to Caucasian patients. East Asians had borderline lower satisfaction with clinic satisfaction in logistic regression (OR 0.74 95% CI 0.55-1.00 p = 0.05), while significant differences were not found for other ethnic groups for clinic satisfaction. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, some but not all minority groups differed in their self-reported perception of satisfaction with fertility clinic and doctors compared to Caucasian patients. Cultural differences towards surveys may contribute to some of these findings, and satisfaction by racial/ethnic group may also be modified by results of care.

Physical intimate partner violence among women reporting prior fertility treatment: a survey of U.S. postpartum women.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of physical intimate partner violence (IPV) among postpartum women reporting preconception fertility treatment compared with those who conceived without the use of assisted reproduction. DESIGN: Retrospective cross-sectional population-based study. SETTING: Not applicable. PATIENT(S): Postpartum respondents of the Centers for Disease Control Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System survey. INTERVENTION: Preconception fertility treatment utilization. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Physical IPV. RESULTS: Of the 43,999 respondents included in this analytic sample, roughly 2% reported physical IPV. Respondents reporting preconception fertility treatment (12.6%) were less likely to endorse physical IPV than those who conceived without fertility treatment exposure (odds ratio, 0.5; 95% confidence interval, 0.4-0.7). In the multivariate regression model, the odds of physical IPV were similar among postpartum women regardless of the fertility treatment exposure (adjusted odds ratio, 1.2; 95% confidence interval, 0.8-2.0). Residing in a household with an income under the federal poverty level and increased preconception stressors were predictive of reported physical IPV. There was no difference in the type of fertility treatment and report of physical IPV. Among women exposed to fertility treatment, predictors of physical IPV included self-identification of Black or Hispanic race and ethnicity as well as report of 4 or more stressors in the 12 months before the most recent delivery. CONCLUSION: The use of fertility treatment did not confer greater risk of physical IPV within this postpartum population. However, there are many individuals with infertility who never present for an assessment, proceed with treatment, or are unsuccessful, thus the extent to which infertility and fertility treatment exposure is associated with physical IPV remains to be elucidated. Women reporting a greater number of stressors may be uniquely at risk despite the access and exposure to fertility treatment. The preconception period, inclusive of encounters with infertility specialists, represents a novel opportunity to screen and counsel all women for IPV.

Racial and Ethnic Variation in Genetic Susceptibility: Are Disparities in Infertility Prevalence and Outcomes more than Black and White?

Race, as a social construct without a clear genetic underpinning, is frequently referenced in medicine as predictor of multiple diseases including that of infertility. The authors will discuss how systematic racism can have downstream consequences ranging from overt physician bias to use of medical algorithms that may potentiate the same disparities they attempt to narrow. Then, the authors explore the utility and pragmatic use of genetic ancestry to estimate disease prevalence, instead of racial categories. Finally, the authors explore how health inequities, rooted in systematic racism, can influence disease heritability effectively advocating for research to disentangle the contributions of racism to genetic susceptibility in infertility.

Early pregnancy anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic: preliminary findings from the UCSF ASPIRE study.

BACKGROUND: Antenatal anxiety has been linked to adverse obstetric outcomes, including miscarriage and preterm birth. However, most studies investigating anxiety during pregnancy, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, have focused on symptoms during the second and third trimester. This study aims to describe the prevalence of anxiety symptoms early in pregnancy and identify predictors of early pregnancy anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: We assessed baseline moderate-to-severe anxiety symptoms after enrollment in the UCSF ASPIRE (Assessing the Safety of Pregnancy in the Coronavirus Pandemic) Prospective Cohort from May 2020 through February 2021. Pregnant persons < 10 weeks' gestation completed questions regarding sociodemographic characteristics, obstetric/medical history, and pandemic-related experiences. Univariate and multivariate hierarchical logistic regression analyses determined predictors of moderate or severe anxiety symptoms (Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 questionnaire score ≥ 10). All analyses performed with Statistical Analysis Software (SAS®) version 9.4. RESULTS: A total of 4,303 persons completed the questionnaire. The mean age of this nationwide sample was 33 years of age and 25.7% of participants received care through a fertility clinic. Over twelve percent of pregnant persons reported moderate-to-severe anxiety symptoms. In univariate analysis, less than a college education (p < 0.0001), a pre-existing history of anxiety (p < 0.0001), and a history of prior miscarriage (p = 0.0143) were strong predictors of moderate-to-severe anxiety symptoms. Conversely, having received care at a fertility center was protective (26.6% vs. 25.7%, p = 0.0009). COVID-19 related stressors including job loss, reduced work hours during the pandemic, inability to pay rent, very or extreme worry about COVID-19, and perceived stress were strongly predictive of anxiety in pregnancy (p < 0.0001). In the hierarchical logistic regression model, pre-existing history of anxiety remained associated with anxiety during pregnancy, while the significance of the effect of education was attenuated. CONCLUSION(S): Pre-existing history of anxiety and socioeconomic factors likely exacerbated the impact of pandemic-related stressors on early pregnancy anxiety symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite on-going limitations for in-person prenatal care administration, continued emotional health support should remain an important focus for providers, particularly when caring for less privileged pregnant persons or those with a pre-existing history of anxiety.

Breast cancer grade and stage do not affect fertility preservation outcomes.

PURPOSE: To investigate if breast cancer stage and grade affect fertility preservation outcomes. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study that included premenopausal women with breast cancer undergoing fertility preservation diagnosed between January 2011 and January 2019. The primary outcome measure was the number of mature oocytes (MII) per antral follicle count (AFC). Secondary outcome measures included total oocytes retrieved, total mature oocytes retrieved, and greater than 10 mature oocytes preserved. Univariate and multivariate models were used to assess the association of low vs. high stage (low stage I-II and high stage III-IV) and grade I vs. grade II/III with each outcome, with adjustment for confounders. RESULTS: A total of 267 premenopausal breast cancer patients undergoing fertility preservation were included in our study, with the majority presenting with low stage (N = 215, 80.5%), grade II/III (N = 235, 88.1%) disease. Baseline AFC, total gonadotropin dose, days of stimulation, and follicles [Formula: see text] 13 mm on the day of trigger did not differ by stage or grade. After adjusting for age, BMI, and baseline AFC, we found that the mean MII per AFC did not differ by stage (1.0 vs. 1.1, P = 0.3) or grade (1.0 vs. 1.0, P = 0.92). Similarly, total oocytes retrieved, total MII retrieved, and percentage of patients who were able to preserve greater than 10 MII did not differ by breast cancer stage or grade (all P > 0.2). CONCLUSION: Breast cancer grade and stage do not impact ovarian stimulation or fertility preservation outcome.

Prevalence and characteristics of patients declined from pursuing in vitro fertilization with autologous oocytes.

PURPOSE: To determine the frequency of and factors associated with a patient being declined from pursuing a cycle of in vitro fertilization with autologous oocytes (IVF-AO). METHODS: A cross-sectional study using a nationwide cohort of female respondents aged 35 or over, who visited a US fertility clinic from 1/2015 to 3/2020, responded to the online FertilityIQ questionnaire ( http://www.fertilityiq.com ). All respondents were asked if they were previously declined from pursuing a cycle of IVF-AO. Examined demographic and clinical predictors included age, race/ethnicity, education, income, clinic type, care received in a mandated state, insurance coverage for fertility treatment, and self-reported infertility diagnosis. Logistic regression was used to calculate the adjusted odds ratios for factors associated with being declined from pursuing IVF-AO. RESULTS: Of 8660 women who met inclusion criteria, 418 (4.8%) reported previously being declined a cycle of IVF-AO. In the multivariate analysis, predictors of being declined from pursuing IVF-AO included increasing age, income of less than $50,000, and diagnoses of poor oocyte quality and diminished ovarian reserve. Predictors of being less likely to report decline included some college or college degree and diagnoses of male factor, unexplained or tubal infertility. Notably, diagnosis of PCOS or residence in a state with mandated fertility coverage was not predictive of patients being declined from pursuing IVF-AO. CONCLUSION: Nearly 5% of patients who pursued IVF reported being declined from pursuing IVF-AO. Further studies are needed to confirm our findings and explore whether patients being declined treatment meet the criteria for futile or very poor prognosis.

A machine learning algorithm can optimize the day of trigger to improve in vitro fertilization outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a machine learning causal inference model can optimize trigger injection timing to maximize the yield of fertilized oocytes (2PNs) and total usable blastocysts for a given cohort of stimulated follicles. DESIGN: Descriptive and comparative study of new technology. SETTING: Tertiary academic medical center. PATIENT(S): Patients undergoing IVF with intracytoplasmic sperm injection from 2008 to 2019 (n = 7,866). INTERVENTION(S): Causal inference was performed with the use of a T-learner. Bagged decision trees were used to perform inference. The decision was framed as either triggering on that day or waiting another day. All patient characteristics and stimulation parameters on a given day were used to determine the recommendation. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Average outcome improvement in total 2PNs and usable blastocysts compared with the physician's decision. RESULT(S): For evaluation of average outcome improvement on 2PNs, the benefit of following the model's recommendation was 3.015 (95% CI 2.626, 3.371) more 2PNs. For total usable blastocysts, the benefit was 1.515 (95% CI 1.134, 1.871) more usable blastocysts. Given that the physicians-model agreement was 52.57% and 61.89%, respectively, algorithm-assisted trigger decisions yield, on average, 1.430 more 2PNs and 0.577 more total usable blastocysts per stimulation. The most important features weighted in the model's decision were the number of follicles 16-20 mm in diameter, the number of follicles 11-15 mm in diameter, and estradiol level, in that order. CONCLUSION(S): The use of this machine learning algorithm to optimize trigger injection timing may lead to a significant increase in the number of 2PNs and total usable blastocysts obtained from an IVF stimulation cycle when compared with physician decisions. Future research is required to confirm these findings prospectively.

Changing stimulation protocol on repeat conventional ovarian stimulation cycles does not lead to improved laboratory outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether physicians' choice of ovarian stimulation protocol is associated with laboratory outcomes. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Single academic center. PATIENT(S): The subjects were 4,458 patients who completed more than one in vitro fertilization ovarian stimulation cycle within 1 year. On second stimulation, 49% repeated the same protocol and 51% underwent a different one. INTERVENTION(S): Estradiol priming antagonist, antagonist +/- oral contraceptive pill priming, long luteal protocol, Lupron (Lupron [AbbVie Inc, North Chicago, IL]) stop protocol, and flare were compared. Logistic or linear regression with cluster robust standard errors to account for covariates and paired data was used. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Oocytes collected (OC), fertilization rate, blastocyst progression (BP), usable embryos (UE), and euploid rate (ER). RESULT(S): First stimulation outcomes were comparable across all protocols for FR, BP, UE, and ER but were different for OC, after adjustment for covariates. For OC, the effect of switching protocols differed according to the type of the second stimulation. There was improvement in OC if the same stimulation was repeated, except for flare. In addition, there were slight, significant improvements in fertilization rate (difference in values or coefficient of 0.02; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.004, 0.4) and UE (coefficient 1.25; 95% CI, 0.79, 1.72) when the same stimulation was repeated. There were no changes in BP (coefficient 0.03; 95% CI, -0.01, 0.08) or ER (coefficient 0.01; 95% CI, -0.04, 0.06) when protocols were changed. In a low-BP subgroup, greater improvement was seen when the same protocol was repeated (coefficient 0.03; 95% CI 0.01, 0.04). CONCLUSION(S): There was a slight but significant improvement in laboratory outcomes when the same stimulation protocol was repeated, so careful consideration should be made before switching stimulation protocols for the purpose of improving laboratory outcomes.

Description and comparison of postpartum use of effective contraception among women with and without diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: As diabetes is increasing among women of reproductive age in the United States, access to effective contraception is important to allow time for optimal glycemic control which may mitigate complications in future pregnancies. This study sought to describe contraceptive use and compare the effectiveness of contraceptive methods among postpartum women with and without diabetes. STUDY DESIGN: This study used data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System and included women with recent live births during 2012-2015 (N = 93,574). Women were asked about pre-gestational or recent gestational diabetes and their postpartum contraceptive method. Chi-square and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to compare contraceptive methods between women with and without diabetes. RESULTS: Contraceptive prevalence was similar between women with (82%) and without (83%) diabetes; women with diabetes were more likely to use the most effective methods. This was driven by higher use of female sterilization among women with diabetes (15%) compared to women without diabetes (9%) (p < 0.001). In multivariate analysis, odds of use of female sterilization versus reversible prescription methods was higher among women with diabetes than women without diabetes (adjusted odds ratio 1.29, 95% confidence interval 1.19-1.39). CONCLUSIONS: Although overall postpartum contraceptive use was high, only 1/3 of women with or without diabetes were using the most effective methods. Furthermore, women with diabetes were more likely to use female sterilization than women without diabetes. It is important all postpartum women, particularly those with high risk pregnancies such as women with diabetes, receive counseling about and access to all contraceptive methods. IMPLICATIONS: It is important for clinicians to counsel women with pregnancies affected by diabetes that reversible contraceptives such as implants and IUDs are as effective as female permanent contraception.

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and infertility treatment: a population-based survey among United States women.

PURPOSE: To explore associations between infertility treatment and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. METHODS: We collated multi-year as well as multi-state data from a national representative survey examining the association between self-reported infertility treatment (i.e., medication, intrauterine insemination, or assisted reproductive technology) and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (i.e., high blood pressure, pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH), preeclampsia, and toxemia). Data were analyzed using logistic regression. A total of 21,884 women in the United States (U.S.), from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) survey (2009-2015), participated in the study. RESULTS: In our analysis, 12.91% women reported a history of infertility treatment and 15.19% reported a history of hypertensive disorder of pregnancy. Compared with women who had never had infertility treatment, women who reported infertility treatment had 1.18 (adjusted OR, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.05, 1.33) higher odds of reporting hypertensive disorder of pregnancy. Neither types of infertility treatment nor proximity of treatment to pregnancy were independently associated with hypertensive disorder of pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that among U.S. women, the treatment of infertility may be associated with hypertension disorder of pregnancy regardless of type of treatment.

Sex selection for non-medical indications: a survey of current pre-implantation genetic screening practices among U.S. ART clinics.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to determine the current percentage of United States (U.S.) assisted reproductive technology (ART) clinics offering sex selection via pre-implantation genetic screening (PGS) for non-medical purposes. METHODS: The authors conducted website review and telephone interview survey of 493 U.S. ART clinics performing in vitro fertilization (IVF) in 2017. Main outcome measures were pre-implantation genetic screening (PGS)/pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) practices and non-medical sex selection practices including family balancing. RESULTS: Of the 493 ART clinics in the USA, 482 clinics (97.8%) responded to our telephone interview survey. Among all U.S. ART clinics, 91.9% (n = 449) reported offering PGS and/or PGD. Furthermore, 476 clinics responded to survey questions about sex selection practices. Of those ART clinics, 72.7% (n = 346) reported offering sex selection. More specifically among those clinics offering sex selection, 93.6% (n = 324) reported performing sex selection for family balancing, and 81.2% (n = 281) reported performing for elective purposes (patient preference, regardless of rationale for the request). For couples without infertility, 83.5% (n = 289) of clinics offer sex selection for family balancing and 74.6% (n = 258) for non-specific elective reasons. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of U.S. ART clinics offer non-medical sex selection, a percentage that has increased substantially since last reported in 2006.