Boosting Mitochondrial Biogenesis Diminishes Foam Cell Formation in the Post-Stroke Brain.

Following ischemic stroke, the degradation of myelin and other cellular membranes surpasses the lipid-processing capabilities of resident microglia and infiltrating macrophages. This imbalance leads to foam cell formation in the infarct and areas of secondary neurodegeneration, instigating sustained inflammation and furthering neurological damage. Given that mitochondria are the primary sites of fatty acid metabolism, augmenting mitochondrial biogenesis (MB) may enhance lipid processing, curtailing foam cell formation and post-stroke chronic inflammation. Previous studies have shown that the pharmacological activation of the ß2-adrenergic receptor (ß2-AR) stimulates MB. Consequently, our study sought to discern the effects of intensified ß2-AR signaling on MB, the processing of brain lipid debris, and neurological outcome using a mouse stroke model. To achieve this goal, aged mice were treated with formoterol, a long-acting ß2-AR agonist, daily for two and eight weeks following stroke. Formoterol increased MB in the infarct region, modified fatty acid metabolism, and reduced foam cell formation. However, it did not reduce markers of post-stroke neurodegeneration or improve recovery. Although our findings indicate that enhancing MB in myeloid cells can aid in the processing of brain lipid debris after stroke, it is important to note that boosting MB alone may not be sufficient to significantly impact stroke recovery.

PNA5, A Novel Mas Receptor Agonist, Improves Neurovascular and Blood-Brain-Barrier Function in a Mouse Model of Vascular Cognitive Impairment and Dementia.

It is well established that decreased brain blood flow, increased reactive oxygen species production (ROS), and pro-inflammatory mechanisms accelerate neurodegenerative disease progressions, including vascular cognitive impairment and dementia (VCID). Previous studies in our laboratory have shown that our novel glycosylated Angiotensin-(1-7) Mas receptor agonist PNA5 reverses cognitive deficits, decreases ROS production, and inhibits inflammatory cytokine production in our preclinical mouse model of VCID that is induced by chronic heart failure (VCID-HF). In the present study, the effects of VCID-HF and treatment with PNA5 on microglia activation, blood-brain-barrier (BBB) integrity, and neurovascular coupling were assessed in our mouse model of VCID-HF. Three-month-old male C57BL/6J mice were subjected to myocardial infarction (MI) to induce heart failure for four weeks and then treated with subcutaneous injections of extended-release PNA5. Microglia activation, BBB permeability, cerebral perfusion, and neurovascular coupling were assessed. Results show that in our VCID-HF model, there was an increase in microglial activation and recruitment within the CA1 and CA3 regions of the hippocampus, a disruption in BBB integrity, and a decrease in neurovascular coupling. Treatment with PNA5 reversed these neuropathological effects of VCID-HF, suggesting that PNA5 may be an effective disease-modifying therapy to treat and prevent VCID. This study identifies potential mechanisms by which heart failure may induce VCID and highlights the possible mechanisms by which treatment with our novel glycosylated Angiotensin-(1-7) Mas receptor agonist, PNA5, may protect cognitive function in our model of VCID.

Examining the Associations between Post-Stroke Cognitive Function and Common Comorbid Conditions among Stroke Survivors.

A considerable complication for stroke survivors is the subsequent development of cognitive decline or dementia. In this study, the relationship between the inflammation-centered comorbidity burden on post-stroke cognitive function among community-dwelling stroke survivors capable of independent living was examined. Data for this secondary analysis were collected from stroke survivors (n = 97) participating in a randomized clinical trial. Participants provided baseline responses, regarding cognitive function (mini-mental status exam, MMSE; Montreal cognitive assessment, MoCA), history of stroke comorbid conditions, and the Stroke Prognosis Instrument-II (SPI-II), an index of stroke comorbidity and recurrent stroke risk within the next two years. Relationships and differences between groups were tested for significance using Spearman's correlation, Kruskal-Wallis, or Mann-Whitney U tests. Most stroke survivors (69%) had multiple comorbidities. Total SPI-II scores were negatively correlated to both MoCA and MMSE scores (r = -0.25, p = 0.01; r = -0.22, p = 0.03, respectively), and differences in MoCA scores among SPI-II risk groups (low, medium, high) were evident (p = 0.05). In contrast, there were no differences in MoCA or MMSE scores when comorbid conditions were examined individually. Lastly, no gender differences were evident in cognitive assessments. Our data support the premise that comorbidity's burden impacts post-stroke cognitive decline, more than a single comorbid condition. Inflammation may be an important component of this comorbidity burden. Future studies that operationalize this concept will better illuminate the complex phenomenon of post-stroke cognitive decline for improved clinical rehabilitation modalities.

Design and Synthesis of Brain Penetrant Glycopeptide Analogues of PACAP With Neuroprotective Potential for Traumatic Brain Injury and Parkinsonism.

There is an unmet clinical need for curative therapies to treat neurodegenerative disorders. Most mainstay treatments currently on the market only alleviate specific symptoms and do not reverse disease progression. The Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), an endogenous neuropeptide hormone, has been extensively studied as a potential regenerative therapeutic. PACAP is widely distributed in the central nervous system (CNS) and exerts its neuroprotective and neurotrophic effects via the related Class B GPCRs PAC1, VPAC1, and VPAC2, at which the hormone shows roughly equal activity. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) also activates these receptors, and this close analogue of PACAP has also shown to promote neuronal survival in various animal models of acute and progressive neurodegenerative diseases. However, PACAP's poor pharmacokinetic profile (non-linear PK/PD), and more importantly its limited blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability has hampered development of this peptide as a therapeutic. We have demonstrated that glycosylation of PACAP and related peptides promotes penetration of the BBB and improves PK properties while retaining efficacy and potency in the low nanomolar range at its target receptors. Furthermore, judicious structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies revealed key motifs that can be modulated to afford compounds with diverse selectivity profiles. Most importantly, we have demonstrated that select PACAP glycopeptide analogues (2LS80Mel and 2LS98Lac) exert potent neuroprotective effects and anti-inflammatory activity in animal models of traumatic brain injury and in a mild-toxin lesion model of Parkinson's disease, highlighting glycosylation as a viable strategy for converting endogenous peptides into robust and efficacious drug candidates.

Post-Stroke Administration of the p75 Neurotrophin Receptor Modulator, LM11A-31, Attenuates Chronic Changes in Brain Metabolism, Increases Neurotransmitter Levels, and Improves Recovery.

The aim of this study was to test whether poststroke oral administration of a small molecule p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) modulator (LM11A-31) can augment neuronal survival and improve recovery in a mouse model of stroke. Mice were administered LM11A-31 for up to 12 weeks, beginning 1 week after stroke. Metabolomic analysis revealed that after 2 weeks of daily treatment, mice that received LM11A-31 were distinct from vehicle-treated mice by principal component analysis and had higher levels of serotonin, acetylcholine, and dopamine in their ipsilateral hemisphere. LM11A-31 treatment also improved redox homeostasis by restoring reduced glutathione. It also offset a stroke-induced reduction in glycolysis by increasing acetyl-CoA. There was no effect on cytokine levels in the infarct. At 13 weeks after stroke, adaptive immune cell infiltration in the infarct was unchanged in LM11A-31-treated mice, indicating that LM11A-31 does not alter the chronic inflammatory response to stroke at the site of the infarct. However, LM11A-31-treated mice had less brain atrophy, neurodegeneration, tau pathology, and microglial activation in other regions of the ipsilateral hemisphere. These findings correlated with improved recovery of motor function on a ladder test, improved sensorimotor and cognitive abilities on a nest construction test, and less impulsivity in an open field test. These data support small molecule modulation of the p75NTR for preserving neuronal health and function during stroke recovery. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The findings from this study introduce the p75 neurotrophin receptor as a novel small molecule target for promotion of stroke recovery. Given that LM11A-31 is in clinical trials as a potential therapy for Alzheimer's disease, it could be considered as a candidate for assessment in stroke or vascular dementia studies.

The Feasibility of Tai Chi Exercise as a Beneficial Mind-Body Intervention in a Group of Community-Dwelling Stroke Survivors with Symptoms of Depression.

Depression is prevalent among one-third to two-thirds of acute and chronic stroke survivors. Despite the availability of pharmacotherapies and/or psychotherapies, depression persists, even for 5-10 years after stroke, reflecting limited treatment responses and/or adherence to this conventional care. Mind-body interventions are commonly used among adults to ameliorate depressive symptoms. Thus, the feasibility of Tai Chi, alongside conventional care, to manage poststroke depression was investigated using a single-group pre-post intervention design. Recruitment and retention, intervention adherence, safety, acceptability, and fidelity were assessed. Symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress were assessed using standardized questionnaires, objective sleep was assessed via a research-grade triaxial accelerometer, and blood samples were taken to measure oxidative stress, inflammatory markers, and a neurotrophic growth factor using commercially available kits per manufacturer's protocol. Pre-post intervention changes were assessed using paired t-tests. We enrolled stroke survivors (N = 11, mean age = 69.7 ± 9.3) reporting depression symptoms. After the intervention, we observed significant reductions in symptoms of depression (-5.3 ± 5.9, p=0.01), anxiety (-2.2 ± 2.4, p=0.01), and stress (-4.6 ± 4.8, p=0.01), along with better sleep efficiency (+1.8 ± 1.8, p=0.01), less wakefulness after sleep onset (-9.3 ± 11.6, p=0.04), and less time awake (-9.3 ± 11.6, p=0.04). There was a 36% decrease in oxidative stress (p=0.02), though no significant changes in the other biomarkers were found (all p values >0.05). Tai Chi exercise is a feasible intervention that can be used alongside conventional care to manage poststroke depression, aid in reducing symptoms of anxiety and stress, and improve sleep.

Evaluation of microglia in a rodent model of Parkinson's disease primed with L-DOPA after sub-anesthetic ketamine treatment.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc), characterized by motor dysfunction. While PD symptoms are well treated with L-DOPA, continuous use can cause L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID). We have previously demonstrated that sub-anesthetic ketamine attenuated LID development in rodents, measured by abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs), and reduced the density of maladaptive striatal dendritic mushroom spines. Microglia may play a role by phagocytosing maladaptive neuronal spines. In this exploratory study, we hypothesized that ketamine would prevent AIMs and change microglia ramified morphology - an indicator of a microglia response. Unilaterally 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-lesioned rats were primed with daily injections of L-DOPA for 14 days, treated on days 0 and 7 for 10-hours with sub-anesthetic ketamine (i.p.), and we replicated that this attenuated LID development. We further extended our prior work by showing that while ketamine treatment did lead to an increase of striatal interleukin-6 in dyskinetic rats, indicating a modulation of an inflammatory response, it did not change microglia number or morphology in the dyskinetic striatum. Yet an increase of CD68 in the SNpc of 6-OHDA-lesioned hemispheres post-ketamine indicates increased microglia phagocytosis suggestive of a lingering microglial response to 6-OHDA injury in the SNpc pointing to possible anti-inflammatory action in the PD model in addition to anti-dyskinetic action. In conclusion, we provide further support for sub-anesthetic ketamine treatment of LID. The mechanisms of action for ketamine, specifically related to inflammation and microglia phagocytic functions, are emerging, and require further examination.

Can quantifying morphology and TMEM119 expression distinguish between microglia and infiltrating macrophages after ischemic stroke and reperfusion in male and female mice?

BACKGROUND: Ischemic stroke is an acquired brain injury with gender-dependent outcomes. A persistent obstacle in understanding the sex-specific neuroinflammatory contributions to ischemic brain injury is distinguishing between resident microglia and infiltrating macrophages-both phagocytes-and determining cell population-specific contributions to injury evolution and recovery processes. Our purpose was to identify microglial and macrophage populations regulated by ischemic stroke using morphology analysis and the presence of microglia transmembrane protein 119 (TMEM119). Second, we examined sex and menopause differences in microglia/macrophage cell populations after an ischemic stroke. METHODS: Male and female, premenopausal and postmenopausal, mice underwent either 60 min of middle cerebral artery occlusion and 24 h of reperfusion or sham surgery. The accelerated ovarian failure model was used to model postmenopause. Brain tissue was collected to quantify the infarct area and for immunohistochemistry and western blot methods. Ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule, TMEM119, and confocal microscopy were used to analyze the microglia morphology and TMEM119 area in the ipsilateral brain regions. Western blot was used to quantify protein quantity. RESULTS: Post-stroke injury is increased in male and postmenopause female mice vs. premenopause female mice (p < 0.05) with differences primarily occurring in the caudal sections. After stroke, the microglia underwent a region, but not sex group, dependent transformation into less ramified cells (p < 0.0001). However, the number of phagocytic microglia was increased in distal ipsilateral regions of postmenopausal mice vs. the other sex groups (p < 0.05). The number of TMEM119-positive cells was decreased in proximity to the infarct (p < 0.0001) but without a sex group effect. Two key findings prevented distinguishing microglia from systemic macrophages. First, morphological data were not congruent with TMEM119 immunofluorescence data. Cells with severely decreased TMEM119 immunofluorescence were ramified, a distinguishing microglia characteristic. Second, whereas the TMEM119 immunofluorescence area decreased in proximity to the infarcted area, the TMEM119 protein quantity was unchanged in the ipsilateral hemisphere regions using western blot methods. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that TMEM119 is not a stable microglia marker in male and female mice in the context of ischemic stroke. Until TMEM119 function in the brain is elucidated, its use to distinguish between cell populations following brain injury with cell infiltration is cautioned.

Experiences of dual PHD-DNP nursing students during doctoral education.

BACKGROUND: Nursing doctoral education now includes an option with a growing national interest: the PhD-DNP dual degree. Although programs have existed for 10 years, little is known about experiences of dual PhD-DNP degree nursing students (DDNS) during doctoral education, including their perceptions of mentorship during coursework, comprehensive exams, and dissertation readiness. OBJECTIVE: To explore and describe the experiences of DDNS during hybrid dual doctoral education at one Southwestern university. METHOD: Using a qualitative descriptive design, DDNS (n = 4) at a Southwestern university were interviewed about their experiences during coursework and comprehensive examinations. RESULTS: Three categories fundamental to DDNS were identified through an inductive and deductive iterative process: coursework experiences, including the key findings of in-betweenness and isolation; mentorship; and comprehensive examination experience. Categories of dissertation readiness and DDNS recommendations were inductively derived. CONCLUSION: Current interest in the PhD-DNP dual degree underscores the importance of knowing more about the experiences of DDNS. The key findings of in-betweenness and isolation have previously not been described in the nursing literature and need to be considered for the DDNS. Facilitators and inhibitors, mentorship experiences, and mentor attributes affect progression of DDNS through coursework. Strategies for success for DDNS, faculty and program success are provided.

Aging with Toxoplasma gondii results in pathogen clearance, resolution of inflammation, and minimal consequences to learning and memory.

Persistent inflammation has been identified as a contributor to aging-related neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Normal aging, in the absence of dementia, also results in gradual cognitive decline and is thought to arise, in part, because of a chronic pro-inflammatory state in the brain. Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that establishes a persistent, asymptomatic infection of the central nervous system (CNS) accompanied by a pro-inflammatory immune response in many of its hosts, including humans and rodents. Several studies have suggested that the inflammation generated by certain strains of T. gondii infection can be neuroprotective in the context of a secondary insult like beta-amyloid accumulation or stroke. Given these neuroprotective studies, we hypothesized that a prolonged infection with T. gondii may protect against age-associated decline in cognition. To test this hypothesis, we infected young adult mice with either of two genetically distinct, persistent T. gondii strains (Prugniaud/type II/haplogroup 2 and CEP/type III/haplogroup 3) and monitored mouse weight, survival, and learning and memory over the ensuing 20 months. At the end of the study, we evaluated CNS inflammation and parasite burden in the surviving mice. We found that parasite infection had no impact on age-associated decline in learning and memory and that by 20 months post infection, in the surviving mice, we found no evidence of parasite DNA, cysts, or inflammation in the CNS. In addition, we found that mice infected with type III parasites, which are supposed to be less virulent than the type II parasites, had a lower rate of long-term survival. Collectively, these data indicate that T. gondii may not cause a life-long CNS infection. Rather, parasites are likely slowly cleared from the CNS and infection and parasite clearance neither positively nor negatively impacts learning and memory in aging.

Corrigendum: Experimental Traumatic Brain Injury Induces Chronic Glutamatergic Dysfunction in Amygdala Circuitry Known to Regulate Anxiety-Like Behavior.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01434.].

Stroke and the neurovascular unit: glial cells, sex differences, and hypertension.

A functional neurovascular unit (NVU) is central to meeting the brain's dynamic metabolic needs. Poststroke damage to the NVU within the ipsilateral hemisphere ranges from cell dysfunction to complete cell loss. Thus, understanding poststroke cell-cell communication within the NVU is of critical importance. Loss of coordinated NVU function exacerbates ischemic injury. However, particular cells of the NVU (e.g., astrocytes) and those with ancillary roles (e.g., microglia) also contribute to repair mechanisms. Epidemiological studies support the notion that infarct size and recovery outcomes are heterogeneous and greatly influenced by modifiable and nonmodifiable factors such as sex and the co-morbid condition common to stroke: hypertension. The mechanisms whereby sex and hypertension modulate NVU function are explored, to some extent, in preclinical laboratory studies. We present a review of the NVU in the context of ischemic stroke with a focus on glial contributions to NVU function and dysfunction. We explore the impact of sex and hypertension as modifiable and nonmodifiable risk factors and the underlying cellular mechanisms that may underlie heterogeneous stroke outcomes. Most of the preclinical investigative studies of poststroke NVU dysfunction are carried out primarily in male stroke models lacking underlying co-morbid conditions, which is very different from the human condition. As such, the evolution of translational medicine to target the NVU for improved stroke outcomes remains elusive; however, it is attainable with further research.

Experimental Traumatic Brain Injury Induces Chronic Glutamatergic Dysfunction in Amygdala Circuitry Known to Regulate Anxiety-Like Behavior.

Up to 50% of traumatic brain injury (TBI) survivors demonstrate persisting and late-onset anxiety disorders indicative of limbic system dysregulation, yet the pathophysiology underlying the symptoms is unclear. We hypothesize that the development of TBI-induced anxiety-like behavior in an experimental model of TBI is mediated by changes in glutamate neurotransmission within the amygdala. Adult, male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent midline fluid percussion injury or sham surgery. Anxiety-like behavior was assessed at 7 and 28 days post-injury (DPI) followed by assessment of real-time glutamate neurotransmission in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) and central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) using glutamate-selective microelectrode arrays. The expression of anxiety-like behavior at 28 DPI coincided with decreased evoked glutamate release and slower glutamate clearance in the CeA, not BLA. Numerous factors contribute to the changes in glutamate neurotransmission over time. In two additional animal cohorts, protein levels of glutamatergic transporters (Glt-1 and GLAST) and presynaptic modulators of glutamate release (mGluR2, TrkB, BDNF, and glucocorticoid receptors) were quantified using automated capillary western techniques at 28 DPI. Astrocytosis and microglial activation have been shown to drive maladaptive glutamate signaling and were histologically assessed over 28 DPI. Alterations in glutamate neurotransmission could not be explained by changes in protein levels for glutamate transporters, mGluR2 receptors, astrocytosis, and microglial activation. Presynaptic modulators, BDNF and TrkB, were significantly decreased at 28 DPI in the amygdala. Dysfunction in presynaptic regulation of glutamate neurotransmission may contribute to anxiety-related behavior and serve as a therapeutic target to improve circuit function.

Acute Post-Traumatic Sleep May Define Vulnerability to a Second Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice.

Chronic neurological impairments can manifest from repetitive traumatic brain injury (rTBI), particularly when subsequent injuries occur before the initial injury completely heals. Herein, we apply post-traumatic sleep as a physiological biomarker of vulnerability, hypothesizing that a second TBI during post-traumatic sleep worsens neurological and histological outcomes compared to one TBI or a second TBI after post-traumatic sleep subsides. Mice received sham or diffuse TBI by midline fluid percussion injury; brain-injured mice received one TBI or rTBIs at 3- or 9-h intervals. Over 40 h post-injury, injured mice slept more than shams. Functional assessments indicated lower latencies on rotarod and increased Neurological Severity Scores for mice with rTBIs within 3 h. Anxiety-like behaviors in the open field task were increased for mice with rTBIs at 3 h. Based on pixel density of silver accumulation, neuropathology was greater at 28 days post-injury (DPI) in rTBI groups than sham and single TBI. Cortical microglia morphology was quantified and mice receiving rTBI were de-ramified at 14 DPI compared to shams and mice receiving a single TBI, suggesting robust microglial response in rTBI groups. Orexin-A-positive cells were sustained in the lateral hypothalamus with no loss detected, indicating that loss of wake-promoting neurons did not contribute to post-traumatic sleep. Thus, duration of post-traumatic sleep is a period of vulnerability that results in exacerbated injury from rTBI. Monitoring individual post-traumatic sleep is a potential clinical tool for personalized TBI management, where regular sleep patterns may inform rehabilitative strategies and return-to-activity guidelines.

Sex differences in astrocyte and microglia responses immediately following middle cerebral artery occlusion in adult mice.

Epidemiological studies report that infarct size is decreased and stroke outcomes are improved in young females when compared to males. However, mechanistic insight is lacking. We posit that sex-specific differences in glial cell functions occurring immediately after ischemic stroke are a source of dichotomous outcomes. In this study we assessed astrocyte Ca2+ dynamics, aquaporin 4 (AQP4) polarity, S100ß expression pattern, as well as, microglia morphology and phagocytic marker CD11b in male and female mice following 60min of middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion. We reveal sex differences in the frequency of intracellular astrocyte Ca2+ elevations (F(1,86)=8.19, P=0.005) and microglia volume (F(1,40)=12.47, P=0.009) immediately following MCA occlusion in acute brain slices. Measured in fixed tissue, AQP4 polarity was disrupted (F(5,86)=3.30, P=0.009) and the area of non-S100ß immunoreactivity increased in ipsilateral brain regions after 60min of MCA occlusion (F(5,86)=4.72, P=0.007). However, astrocyte changes were robust in male mice when compared to females. Additional sex differences were discovered regarding microglia phagocytic receptor CD11b. In sham mice, constitutively high CD11b immunofluorescence was observed in females when compared to males (P=0.03). When compared to sham, only male mice exhibited an increase in CD11b immunoreactivity after MCA occlusion (P=0.006). We posit that a sex difference in the presence of constitutive CD11b has a role in determining male and female microglia phagocytic responses to ischemia. Taken together, these findings are critical to understanding potential sex differences in glial physiology as well as stroke pathobiology which are foundational for the development of future sex-specific stroke therapies.

A quantitative spatiotemporal analysis of microglia morphology during ischemic stroke and reperfusion.

BACKGROUND: Microglia cells continuously survey the healthy brain in a ramified morphology and, in response to injury, undergo progressive morphological and functional changes that encompass microglia activation. Although ideally positioned for immediate response to ischemic stroke (IS) and reperfusion, their progressive morphological transformation into activated cells has not been quantified. In addition, it is not well understood if diverse microglia morphologies correlate to diverse microglia functions. As such, the dichotomous nature of these cells continues to confound our understanding of microglia-mediated injury after IS and reperfusion. The purpose of this study was to quantitatively characterize the spatiotemporal pattern of microglia morphology during the evolution of cerebral injury after IS and reperfusion. METHODS: Male C57Bl/6 mice were subjected to focal cerebral ischemia and periods of reperfusion (0, 8 and 24 h). The microglia process length/cell and number of endpoints/cell was quantified from immunofluorescent confocal images of brain regions using a skeleton analysis method developed for this study. Live cell morphology and process activity were measured from movies acquired in acute brain slices from GFP-CX3CR1 transgenic mice after IS and 24-h reperfusion. Regional CD11b and iNOS expressions were measured from confocal images and Western blot, respectively, to assess microglia proinflammatory function. RESULTS: Quantitative analysis reveals a significant spatiotemporal relationship between microglia morphology and evolving cerebral injury in the ipsilateral hemisphere after IS and reperfusion. Microglia were both hyper- and de-ramified in striatal and cortical brain regions (respectively) after 60 min of focal cerebral ischemia. However, a de-ramified morphology was prominent when ischemia was coupled to reperfusion. Live microglia were de-ramified, and, in addition, process activity was severely blunted proximal to the necrotic core after IS and 24 h of reperfusion. CD11b expression, but not iNOS expression, was increased in regions of hyper- and de-ramified microglia during the course of ischemic stroke and 24 h of reperfusion. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings illustrate that microglia activation after stroke includes both increased and decreased cell ramification. Importantly, quantitative analyses of microglial morphology and activity are feasible and, in future studies, would assist in the comprehensive identification and stratification of their dichotomous contribution toward cerebral injury and recovery during IS and reperfusion.

Immunological methods for nursing research: from cells to systems.

Scientists and clinicians frequently use immunological methods (IMs) to investigate complex biological phenomena. Commonly used IMs include immunocytochemistry (IC), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and flow cytometry. Each of these methodologies exploits a common principle in IMs -the binding of an antibody to its antigen. Scientists continue to develop new methodologies, such as high-throughput immunohistochemistry (IHC) and in vivo imaging techniques, which exploit antibody-antigen binding, to more accurately answer complex research questions involving single cells up to whole organ systems. The purpose of this paper is to discuss established and evolving IMs and to illustrate the application of these methods to nursing research.

Beyond the PhD: putting the right tools in your research toolbox.

Postdoctoral training is vital to a successful career for nurse researchers with a biological or biobehavioral focus. Such training provides structured time to devote to gaining substantive knowledge, expanding one's biological-methods repertoire, and writing grants. However, for unknown reasons, relatively few nurses pursue postdoctoral training. A few plausible explanations include a near critical shortage of nursing faculty coupled with an aging population in need of health care, a lack of available mentoring for predoctoral students to pursue postdoctoral training, and the difficulty of navigating the process of finding and choosing the right match for a postdoctoral experience. The purposes of this article are to provide a rationale for choosing postdoctoral training, review common fellowship opportunities, and discuss the process of finding and choosing the right match for postdoctoral training. The authors provide two prospective plans for postdoctoral training and include a plan for staying on track during the postdoctoral experience.